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A GRAMMAR 



ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE. 



J 6,4. 



GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ANGLO-SAION LANGUAGE, 



BY 



LOUIS F, RLIPSTEIN, AA. LL.M. AND PH.D. 

OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GIESSEN. 



NEW YORK: 
GEORGE P. PUTNAM, 155 BROADWAY, 

AND 142 STRAND, LONDON. 

j^rr /fee* ^<f* >e ^%&++*-* &y&r^*+*>st~' *^~- 

J?fz~*s~^ f**&r s/> /for. 



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Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1843, by 

LOUIS F. KLIPSTEIN, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for 

the Southern District of New York. 









W. BENEDICT, PRINTER, 
10 SVRt'CE STREET. 



TO 



ORVILLE HOEWITZ, ESQ., 



THIS VOLUM 



IS SI NCERELY INSCR IBED 



WHO HAS EVER ADMIRED 



HIS TALENTS AND SCHOLARSHIP, 



AND 



APPRECIATED A FRIENDSHIP.. 



WHICH A CLOSE INTIMACY OF YEARS 



HAS TENDED ONLY TO STRENGTHEN. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 
CHAPTER I. 

Page 

The Alphabet and Pronunciation, - - - - 31 
CHAPTER II. 

Change of Letters, - - - - - -,-35 

With regard to Consonants, 3d 

With regard to Vowels, 37 

PART II.— ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER I. 

Parts of Speech, - - - - - - - -39 

Numbers, 39 

Cases, 40 

Genders, ..------.40 

Declensions, --------- 41 

General Rules lor the Declensions, - - - - 41 

CHAPTER II. 
The Articles, . . 42 

CHAPTER III. 

Nouns, - 43 

Synopsis of the Declensions, - - - - - 43 

1 



CONTENTS. 

Page 

Declension of Nouns, 43 

First Declension, 43 

Second Declension, 47 

Third Declension, 49 

Irregular Nouns, -.50 

Origin and Formation of Nouns, 54 

Proper Names, ---57 

CHAPTER IV, 

Adjectives, ---------59 

Synopsis of the Declensions, - - - - - 59 

Declension of Adjectives, ------ 60 

Indefinite Adjectives, -60 

Definite Adjectives, -62 

Comparison of Adjectives, - - - - - - 64 

A List of Irregular Comparisons, 64 

Origin and Formation of Adjectives, - - - - 67 

CHAPTER V. 

Pronouns, 69 

Personal Pronouns, 69 

Adjective Pronouns, ------- 72 

Definitive Pronouns, -------74 

Relative and Interrogative Pronouns, - - - -.76 

Origin and Formation of the Articles and Pronouns, - 77 

CHAPTER VI. 

Numbers, 79 

Origin and Formation of the Numerals, - - - 84 

CHAPTER VII. 
Verbs, 85 

Conjugations, - - -- - . . -85 

Moods, 85 

Tenses, ---------85 

Numbers, ----.. • * ~ 86 

Persons, 86 

2 



CONTENTS. 

Page 

Participles, - - 86 

Gerund, 86 

Conjugation of Verbs, -------86 

The Simple Order, 86 

1st Conjugation --------86 

Remarks on the 1st Conjugation, 93 

The Complex Order, 93 

2d Conjugation, - - - - - -,- -93 

Remarks on the 2d Conjugation, - - - - - 95 

3d Conjugation, 95 

Remarks on the 3d Conjugation, 97 

Formation of the Different Parts of the Verb, - - 98 
Auxiliary Verbs, - - - - - - - -101 

Compound Tenses, - 108 

Impersonal Verbs, -108 

Mixed Verbs, 100 

Anomalous Verbs, - - - - - - -109 

Negative Verbs, - - - - - - - -111 

A List of Complex \erbs, 113 

Imperfect Verbs, 154 

Origin and Formation of Verbs, ----- 154 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Adverbs, 156 

CHAPTER IX. 
Prepositions, - ------162 

CHAPTER X. 
Conjunctions, - - 167 

CHAPTER XL 

Interjections, 169 

Origin and Formation of the Indeclinable Parts of 

Speech, - 170 



r>\ 



CONTENTS. 

PART III.— SYNTAX. 

Page 

Construction of Sentences, 172 

Concord, 173 

Government, 175 

PART IV.— PROSODY. 

Of Anglo-Saxon Poetry in General,' - - - -182 
A List of Anglo-Saxon Phrases, - -186 

Appendix A, 194 

Appendix B, - - 200 

Appendix C, - - - ...... 207 

Appendix D, ....„..-. 209 



PREFACE. 



It has been asserted by some that the common people of 
Italy, Spain, and Portugal, speak the language of their 
respective countries mostly in accordance with what is 
written among them, while the same class in England, and 
we may add in our own country to a certain extent, are 
generally deficient with regard to the received principles of 
correct speech in the quality and use of words. Without 
saying how far the assertion holds good, we will only re- 
mark that the philologist and the attentive observer who 
understands the language of his forefathers, will at once 
perceive that what is supposed to be incorrect, is in the 
majority of cases the genuine Anglo-Saxon, which ex- 
presses itself through its natural channel. Above the class 
to which we have alluded, a superstructure has been raised 
in the various elements which have entered into the com- 
position of our present English since the days of Gower 
and Chaucer, of Surrey and Spenser, and which took their 
rise, indeed, considerably anterior to that period, if not with 
the Norman Conquest. The languages of Italy, Spajn, 
and Portugal, on the contrary, have remained compara- 
tively stationary since their first formation, and, from their 



PREFACE. 

very nature, they must be spoken by all conditions of so- 
ciety with but little difference. 

If we are partly led to the study of the Latin and 
Greek languages from the light which they throw upon 
the structure of our own, the Anglo-Saxon, for the same 
reason, has claims upon us almost equally great, forming, 
as it does, the broad basis upon which the others rest. So 
true is this, that it can be safely affirmed that no one has 
a thorough knowledge of English, who is unacquainted 
with an element of so much importance. 

It is from a desire of making American youth who glory 
in their Anglo-Saxon descent acquainted with the language 
of their ancestors, that the author has been induced to 
issue the following pages. He has long perceived the 
want of something of the kind from the press in this coun- 
try, while the subject has of late years received so much 
attention in Great Britain, and trusts that he has at last 
met it in a certain measure. How far he has succeeded 
in his attempt, he leaves it to the literary portion of the 
community to judge. 

The principal authorities consulted in preparing this 
work, have been the Angelsaksisk Sprogloere of the late 
distinguished philologist, Prof. Rask, of Copenhagen, the 
learned Deutsche Grammatik of Prof. Grimm, and the 
Compendious Grammar of the Primitive English or Anglo- 
Saxon Language and larger Dictionary of that eminent 
Saxon scholar, the Rev. J. Bosworth, LL.D., PH.D., 
etc., etc., etc. In the general order and arrangement of 
his matter the Author has differed both from Prof. Rask 



PREFACE. 

and Dr. Bosworth, and likewise from them and the rest 
who have written upon the subject in many of his views 
of the language. In some few instances he has used the 
expressions of others, either through inadvertence, or where 
he had found the same employed by more than one to such 
an extent as to become common property. 

It was intended at first to introduce the Ablative, but 
upon mature reflection deemed unnecessary, as, however 
general and express that case may have been in earlier 
times, with the exception of a few peculiar forms, it evi- 
dently does not belong to the language as we now have it, 
distinct from the Dative. It would seem to have been 
gradually laid aside, while the Dative finally, in almost 
every instance, was used in its stead. 

The accent has been employed in every case in which 
analogy would justify it. How much the proper pronun- 
ciation of words depends upon its adoption, will be easily 
seen. 

Not only has the monkish character been rejected and 
the Roman substituted in its place, but the |>, [>, has been 
represented by Th, th, and the D, ^, by Th, th. While 
nothing is lost by this further change, typographical uni- 
formity has been gained. 

St. James , Santee, S. C, June, 1848. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



Norn., N. 


Nominative. 


Gen., G. 


Genitive. 


Dat., D. 


Dative. 


Ace, A. 


Accusative. 


m. 


Masculine. 


/• 


Feminine. 


w. 


Neuter. 


Pron. 


Pronoun. 


Inf. 


Infinitive. 


Ind. 


Indicative. 


Sub. 


Subjunctive. 


Imp. 


Imperative. 


Indef, i. 


Indefinite. 


Perf , p. 


Perfect. 


Part;#p. 


Participle ; Perf. Part 


Ger. 


Gerund. 


Con. 


Conjugation. 


01. 


Class. 


Anom. 


Anomalous. 


Irr. 


Irregular. 


Eng. 


English. 



INTRODUCTION. 

ON THE STUDY OF THE ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE. 



Language may properly be defined to be " the expression 
of ideas either by sounds or signs." To the former we 
give the more specific name of spoken, and to the latter 
that of written language. It is the capacity of expressing 
ideas through language which confessedly raises man, 
" the noblest of God's creatures," above the other works 
of his hands, and which places him in the scale of being 
" but a little lower than the angels." It is also a line of 
demarkation that is continually broadening, for just in pro- 
portion as civilization advances and the arts and sciences 
progress and develop themselves, does language become 
more useful in itself and more admirable in its structure, 
until the nicest shades of meaning, and the finest and most 
hair-splitting distinctions in thought, may be set forth and 
conveyed to other minds with a precision truly wonderful. 
So far, indeed, is this true, that whether existing as cause 
or effect, the curious inquirer may trace the wavy line of 
civilization from the wild hordes of Tartary to the polished 
inhabitants of Berlin, by exactly following the progress 
and more elevated structure of the languages of the divers 
countries through which he may pass, from the disjointed 
jargon of Beloochistan to the learned and philosophic lan- 
guage of Germany. It will be further found on inquiry 
o 



INTRODUCTION. 

and reflection, that the desire of becoming acquainted with 
the various signs and sounds used by the inhabitants, both 
ancient and modern, of different portions of the earth for 
the expression of the same ideas, has also kept pace or 
rather increased with social and intellectual improvement 
among nations. The North American Indian, proud of his 
native forest and of his naked form, feels his unwritten gib- 
berish adequate to all his wants, and never spends a thought 
on the mode in which neighboring nations differ from his 
own tribe in their forms of speech, The Turkish mer- 
chant or the Mohammedan dervis, one half animated under 
the influence of his opium and his pipe, is satisfied if he 
can give vent to the few words understood by his customer, 
or misapprehended by his votary, his dull intellect having 
never been taught to stray beyond the confines of his cof- 
fee or his sherbet. But pass within the borders of enlight- 
ened France, or cross the channel which separates the 
continent from the research of England, and you may be- 
hold men who, not content with studying the various lan- 
guages that are now spoken throughout the different king- 
doms of Europe ; who, not satisfied with analysing the 
Latinity of Lucan, the Greek of Aristophanes, or the He- 
brew of Maimonides, are searching for the hidden myste- 
ries contained in the hieroglyphics of Egypt, and in the 
still more curious and recondite inscriptions of Central 
America, or are loading their brains with the numerous 
dialects of the vast territory of Hindostan. One may there 
admire the labors of a Champollion or a Jomard, of a 
Clarke or a Porson, of a Sir William Jones or a Warren 
Hastings. 

We have intimated that this desire has increased with 
the rise and progress of the arts and sciences, and the gene- 
ral diffusion of letters. Is not this true ? Compare the 
condition of the European world from the fifth to the fif- 

10 



INTRODUCTION. 

teenth century ; from the time when the swarms of bar- 
barians from the northern hive overspread Italy, till the 
period of the invention of printing, of the compass, and of 
gunpowder. Then all learning, and all desire for learning, 

Were confined to the cloister to a knowledge of writing, 

and of the Latin and Greek languages for performance of 
religious rituals, and the understanding of the New Testa- 
ment. Then every tribe and every feudal territory looked 
upon its neighbors as barbarians whose dialects, or whose 
customs and laws, were unworthy of being known. Now 
the craving for foreign languages is without limit : every 
school-miss must smatter some French, or be able to repeat 
in the original some of Goethe's lyrics ; and no man thinks 
himself educated, even in this steam-generating age and 
country, without a tolerable acquaintance with the classics, 
and some knowledge of more than one modern language 
besides his vernacular. And should not this increased and 
ever increasing desire of becoming acquainted with the 
modes of thought and expression of those nations which 
are now numbered with the dead and belong only to his- 
tory, as well as of those which are still in existence, but 
which are separated from us by territorial limits and by 
difference of language, be, within certain bounds, encou- 
raged ? We answer that it should, and we would endeavor, 
as far as we are capable, to give it a right direction. That 
there are defects in our present system of education, no 
one can doubt. Too much, by far too much time is spent 
by our youth in lumbering their heads with the languages 
of ancient Greece and Rome ; in scanning hexameters and 
writing anapests. Years of exertion when the mind is 
fresh and the memory strong, are to a great extent wasted 
in the acquirement of information which can, comparatively 
speaking, be but of little practical advantage in future life. 
Who will question for a moment that all the boasted disci- 



INTRODUCTION. 

pline of mind so fondly attributed to a study of the classics, 
and all the elegance of taste supposed to be derived from 
a familiarity with Cicero and Virgil, may be equally in- 
' sured from a thorough knowledge of the language and 
writings of Mendelsohn, of Schiller, and of Goethe, at 
the same time that we are mastering a living tongue used 
by millions of the most enlightened of men, and of incalcu- 
lable benefit in our intercourse with the world ? Change 
of case by change of termination, declension of articles, 
prepositions governing genitives, datives, and accusatives, 
and inversion of sentences, may all be found, ready to 
tempt the ardor and puzzle the ingenuity of the student. 
Let us be understood. We live in an age of energy and 
of improvement, and in a country peculiarly distinguished 
for its rapid advancement and for the restless and unwearied 
ambition of its inhabitants. We are men at a time of life 
when tutelage has not ceased in other countries. We 
leave our homes and our friends, mere youths, in search of 
a new settlement and a sudden fortune, and do not return 
to the place of our birth until we can write ourselves " the 
member" from some western district, or have been favored 
by the blind goddess. All here have equal political rights ; 
the highest honors and the noblest stations are open equally 
for the rich and the poor, for the high and the low ; and 
the consequence is, a corresponding population — a popu- 
lation anxious to acquire only those elements of informa- 
tion which can be brought into immediate use. And 
hence there never has been a land that has given rise to 
so much improvement in the arts — without science j to so 
many orators — without learning ; to so much legislation — 
without statesmen. We make a professional man as we 
make a journey — by steam ; we select a congressman as 
we select a wife — by accident, or under the influence of 

feeling. In such a country, we confess, we do not expect 
12 



INTRODUCTION. 

to find men devoting their whole lives to the thorough 
and masterly comprehension of dead languages, in this way 
secure of a place among the scholars and the venerated 
men of learning among their own people. We do not, in 
the present state of things, expect to find an American 
Porson or Schrevelius. Such men are too plodding, such 
learning is too solid for so energetic and so electro-mag- 
netic a country. We would endeavor, then, but without 
taking away the means of acquisition from those desirous of 
emulating European scholarship and erudition ; we would 
endeavor, I say, to make education more practical and 
better adapted to the age and country in which we live. 
We would have more time bestowed in our colleges upon 
the modern languages at the expense of Latin, and especi- 
ally of Greek ; and we would also extend the ordinary pro- 
grammes of our schools so as to embrace the Anglo-Saxon, 
the full sister of the German and English, the daughter of 
the same common parent, the Teutonic, for the reasons 
which we are about to assign. 

It will scarcely be denied that the first object of all 
who have any pretensions to the outlines of an education, 
should be a thorough comprehension of their mother 
tongue — its power — its character — its elements. Nothing 
has ever appeared to us more ridiculous than the abundant 
and pedantic Latin and Greek quotations of a man igno- 
rant of his vernacular — learned in Horace and Juvenal, but 
shamefully negligent of Murray and Webster — at home in 
all the wars of Ceesar, but to whom the splendid produc- 
tions of our mighty Shakspeare are a sealed book. Such 
a man reminds us of a mathematician who can calculate 
the recurrence of an eclipse with accuracy, but who can- 
not work out the simplest question in discount j of a che- 
mist who will furnish us with the most correct and minute 

analysis of the waters of a mineral spring, but who blun- 
*13 2 



INTRODUCTION. 

ders in decomposing common chalk. We hope the day is 
not far distant when such men may be rarely met with, 
and we think it will depend in some degree on the intro- 
duction of the study of the Anglo-Saxon into our colleges. 
The English, like all other languages of the present day, 
is a derivative language, and its great bulk comes to us 
from the Anglo-Saxon, the Latin, the Greek, and the 
French. Of these four by far the greater number of words, 
and those of the most important, necessary, and forcible 
sorts, are derived immediately from the Anglo-Saxon.* 
From the information that we can collect on the subject, 
it may be set down as very nearly certain that about 
five-eighths of our language is Anglo-Saxon, three-six- 
teenths Latin, one-eighth Greek, and the remainder a 
compound of French, Spanish, and other tongues. It will 
thus be seen how important a part, even numerically consi- 
dered, the Anglo-Saxon plays in the formation of the Eng- 
lish. Sharon Turner, whose history of that ancient people 
is replete with learning, with industrious research and 
with correct views, has, in his Chapter on the Language of 
the Anglo-Saxons, marked the number of words immedi- 
ately derived from that language in several passages select- 
ed from the Bible and from some of our most classic writers, 
such as Shakspeare, Milton, Thomson, Addison, Locke, 
Pope, Swift, Hume, Gibbon, and Johnson. On counting 
the number of Anglo-Saxon words, and comparing it with 
the number derived from other sources, it will be found 

* Under the head of William the Conqueror, Hume in his celebrated 
history has the following sentence: "From the attention of William, 
and from the extensive foreign dominions long annexed to the crown 
of England, proceeded that mixture of French which is at present 
to be found in the English tongue, and which composes the greatest 
and best part of our language." Our remarks will be found to be in 
collision with those of the great historian, and yet we think there can 
be little doubt that in this instance Hume has fallen into error. 

14 



INTRODUCTION. 

that in no selection is more than one-third not Saxon, and 
in some less than one-tenth, the largest proportion of words 
of Saxon origin being contained in those authors who are 
confessedly the most forcible in their expressions, and the 
most admired as models of strength ; the translation of the 
Bible by the Bishops, commonly known as King James's 
Bible, standing at the head of the list for the number of 
Saxon words, as it unquestionably does for terseness and 
force of language. We should, therefore, be doing injus- 
tice to the services rendered us by the good old Saxons, 
were we to look merely to the number of words transplanted 
from this source into the vernacular. For although of the 
forty thousand forms, exclusive of inflections and partici- 
ples, now comprising the English language, more than 
twenty thousand, which exceeds the number of words 
contained in Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon Lexicon, are incor- 
porated into it from the Anglo-Saxon, yet we believe that 
we are far more indebted to our Saxon progenitors be- 
cause of the peculiar kinds of words we have obtained 
from them, as well as from the influence which they have 
exerted on the grammatical construction and the idiomatic 
expressions of our language, than on account of the actual 
proportion of them. Sir Walter Scott, than whom no man 
knew better the power of our most forcible language, or 
has probed more deeply the sources of its strength and 
flexibility, has borne testimony to the value and energy of 
our Anglo-Saxon derivatives in that masterpiece — his 
Ivanhoe. In a conversation between Gurth, the swine- 
herd, and Wamba, the jester, in which Gurth is calling 
upon Wamba to " up and help him, an' he be a man," to 
get together the wandering swine, Wamba says : " Gurth, 
I advise thee to call offFango, and leave the herd to theii 
destiny, which, whether they meet with bands of travel- 
ling soldiers, or of outlaws, or of wandering pilgrims, can 

15 



INTRODUCTION. 

be little else than to be converted into Normans before 
morning to thy no small ease and comfort." 

"The swine turned Norman to my comfort!" quoth 
Gurth ; " expound that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too 
dull, and my mind too vexed to read riddles." 

" Why, how call you these grunting brutes, running 
about on their four legs ?" demanded Wamba. 

" Swine, fool, swine," said the herd, " every fool knows 
that." 

" And swine is good Saxon" said the jester, " and how 
call you the sow when she is flayed and drawn and quar- 
tered, and hung up by the heels like a traitor." 

" Pork," answered the swine-herd. 

" I am very glad every fool knows that, too," said Wam- 
ba, " and pork, I think, is good Norman French, and so 
when the brute lives, and is in the charge of a Saxon 
slave, she goes by her Saxon name ; but becomes a Nor- 
man, and is called pork, when she is carried to the castle 
hall to feast among the nobles ; what dost thou think of 
this, friend Gurth, ha ?" 

" It is but too true doctrine, friend Wamba, however it 
got into thy fool's pate." 

" Nay, I can tell you more," said Wamba in the same 
tone. " There is old alderman Ox continues to hold his 
Saxon epithet, while he is under the charge of serfs and 
bondmen, such as thou ; but becomes Beef, a fiery French 
gallant, when he arrives before the worshipful jaws that 
are destined to consume him. Mynheer Calf, too, becomes 
Monsieur de Veau in the like manner ; he is Saxon when 
he requires tendance, and takes a Norman name when he 
becomes matter of enjoyment."* 

* These remarks might be extended to other words of the same 

class — the Saxon sheep was converted into the Norman mutton, 

for the use of the feudal lords and a voting hen tasted more palatable 
16 



INTRODUCTION. 

And again he adds, in speaking of the introduction of 
the language of William the Conqueror, " In short, French 
was the language of honor, of chivalry, and even of jus- 
tice, while the far more manly and expressive Anglo-Saxon 
was abandoned to the use of rustics and hinds, who knew 
no other." 

An elegant writer in the Edinburgh Review, of 1839, 
sums up thoroughly and beautifully, and more forcibly 
than we could, the items of the debt of gratitude we owe 
to the Anglo-Saxon (as by far the most important and in- 
fluential element of our language), in the following words, 
which we are glad to adopt. 

" In the first place," says the reviewer, " English Gram- 
mar is almost exclusively occupied with what is of Anglo* 
Saxon origin. Our chief peculiarities of structure and of 
idiom, are essentially Anglo-Saxon ; while almost all the 
classes of words, which it is the office of Grammar to in- 
vestigate, are derived from that language. And though 
these peculiarities of structure may occupy little space, and 
these words be very few compared with those to be found 
in Johnson's Dictionary, they enter most vitally into the 
constitution of the language, and bear a most important part 
in shaping and determining its character. Thus, what few 
inflections we have, are all Anglo- Saxon. The English 
genitive, the general modes of forming the plural of nouns, 
and the terminations by which we express the compara- 
tive and superlative of adjectives, er and est ; the inflec- 
tions of the pronouns ; of the second and third persons 

and seemed better adapted to Norman stomachs, served up as a 
French pullet, &c, &c. It was the perusal of the above quotation 
from the admirable production of the Wizard of the North, many- 
years since, that first turned the writer's attention to the study of the 
Anglo-Saxon ; nor is this ihe only favor that he has to acknowledge 
as conferred on him, by a careful attention to the writings of this great 
Novelist, Poet, Historian, and Antiquary. 



INTRODUCTION. 



present and imperfect of the verbs ; of the preterites and 
participles of the verbs, whether regular or irregular, and 
the most frequent termination of our adverbs (ly) are all 
Anglo-Saxon. The nouns, too, derived from Latin and 
Greek, receive the Anglo-Saxon terminations of the geni- 
tive and the plural, while the preterites and participle of 
verbs derived from the same sources, take the Anglo-Saxon 
inflections. As to the parts of speech, those which occur 
most frequently, and are individually of most importance, 
are almost wholly Saxon. Such are our articles and de- 
finitives generally : as a, an, the, this, that, then, those, 
many, few, some, one, none; the adjectives, whose com- 
paratives and superlatives are irregularly formed, and which 
(for reasons on which it would be irrelevant to speculate 
here) are in every language among the most ancient, com- 
prehensive in meaning, and extensively used : the separate 
words more and most, by which we as often express the 
forms of comparison as by distinct terminations ; all our 
pronouns, personal, possessive, relative, and interrogative ; 
nearly every one of our so-called irregular verbs, including 
all the auxiliaries, have, be, shall, will, may, can, must, by 
which we express the force of the principal varieties of 
mood and tense ; all the adverbs most frequently employed, 
and the prepositions and conjunctions almost without ex- 
ception. 

" Secondly. The names of the greater part of the objects 
of sense, in other words, the terms which occur most fre- 
quently in discourse, or which recall the most vivid con- 
ceptions, are Anglo-Saxon. Thus, for example, the names 
of the most striking objects in visible nature, of the chief 
agencies at work there, and of the changes which pass over 
it, are Anglo-Saxon. This language has given names to 
the heavenly bodies, sun, moon, stars ; to three out of the 

four elements, earth, fire, water / three out of the four sea- 
ls 



INTRODUCTION. 

sons, spring , summer, winter ; and, indeed, to all the natu- 
ral divisions of time, except one, as day, night, morning, 
evening, twilight, noon, midday, midnight, sunrise, sunset; 
some of which are amongst the most poetical terms we 
have. To the same language we are indebted for the 
names of light, heat, cold, frost, rain, snow, hail, sleep, thun- 
der, lightning ; as well as of almost all those objects which 
form the component parts of the beautiful in external 
scenery, as sea and land, hill and dale, wood and stream, 
&c. The same may be said of all those productions of the 
animal and vegetable kingdoms which form the most fre- 
quent subjects of observation or discourse, or which are in- 
vested with the most pleasing and poetic associations ; of 
the constituent parts or visible qualities of organized or un- 
organized beings, especially of the members of the human 
body, and of the larger animals. Anglo-Saxon has also 
furnished us with that numerous and alwa} 7 s vivid class of 
words, which denote the cries, postures, and motions of 
animated existence. These are amongst the most ener- 
getic that any language can supply ; for the same reason 
that words expressive of individual objects are always 
stronger than general terms. It is a sound and universal 
maxim of rhetoric, that the more abstract the term is, the 
less vivid — the more special, the more vivid. Now, al- 
most all the words which are expressive of these speciali- 
ties of posture and bodily action, are the purest Saxon ; 
such as to sit, to stand, to lie, to run, to walk, to leap, to 
stagger, to slip, to slide, to stride, to glide, to yawn, to 
gape, to wink, to thrust, to fly, to swim, to creep, to crawl, 
to spring, to spurn, &c. If all this be true, we need not 
be surprised at the fact, that in the descriptions of ex- 
ternal nature, whether by prose writers or by poets, the 
most energetic and graphic terms are almost universally 
Anglo-Saxon. It is as little matter of wonder, that in 

19 



INTRODUCTION. 

those simple narratives in which genius and wisdom at- 
tempt the most difficult of all tasks — that of teaching phi- 
losophy without the forms of it, and of exhibiting general 
truths in facts and examples, leaving the inferences to be 
drawn by the instinctive sagacity of human nature — the 
terms are often almost without exception Anglo-Saxon. 
It is thus with the narratives of the Old Testament — the his- 
tory of Joseph, for instance — and w 7 ith the parables of the 
New ; perhaps the only compositions in the world which 
can be translated without losing much in the process, and 
which, into whatever language translated, at once assumes 
a most idiomatic dress. The same remark holds good to a 
certain extent of ' Robinson Crusoe,' i the Vicar of Wake- 
field,' ' Gulliver's Travels,' and other works, in which the 
bulk of the words are pure Saxon. 

" Thirdly. It is from this language we derive the words 
which are expressive of the earliest and dearest connex- 
ions, and of the strongest and most powerful feelings of our 
nature; and which are consequently invested with our' 
oldest and most complicated associations. Their very 
sound is often a spell for the orator and the poet to ' con- 
jure withal.' It is this language which has given us 
names for father, mother, husband, wife, brother, sister, son, 
daughter, child, home, kindred, friends. It is this which 
has furnished us with the greater part of those metonymies, 
and other figurative expressions, by which we represent to 
the imagination, and that in a single word, the reciprocal 
duties and enjoyments of hospitality, friendship, or love. 
Such are hearth, roof, fireside. The chief emotions, too, of 
which we are susceptible, are expressed in the same lan- 
guage as love , hope, fear, sorrow, shame ; and what is of 
more consequence, to the orator and the poet, as well as in 
common life, the outward signs by which emotion is indi- 
cated are almost all Anglo-Saxon. Such are tear, smile, 



INTRODUCTION. * 

blush, to laugh, to weep, to sigh, to groan. In short, the 
words generally expressive of the strongest emotions or 
their outward signs, as well as of almost all the objects or 
events calculated to call forth either, in all the more stir- 
ring scenes of human life from the cradle to the grave, are 
of Saxon origin. This class of words, therefore, both 
from the frequency with which they are used and from the 
depth of meaning attached to them, must necessarily form 
one of the most important and energetic portions of the 
language. 

" Fourthly. The words which have been earliest used, 
and which are consequently invested with the strongest as- 
sociations, are almost all of a similar origin. This, indeed, 
follows from what has been already said ; for, if the words 
descriptive of the most ordinary objects of sense, and of the 
principal varieties and signs of emotion, are Anglo-Saxon, 
such, from the course of development which the human 
mind takes, must necessarily be the terms which first fall 
upon the ear of childhood. Still the fact that they are the 
earliest, gives them additional power over the mind — a 
power quite independent of the meaning they convey. 
They are the words which fall from the lips most dear to 
us, and carry back the mind to the home of childhood and 
to the sports of youth. That vocabulary was scanty ; but 
every word, from the earliest moment to which memory 
can turn back, has been the established sign of whatever 
has been most familiar or most curious to us. 

" Fifthly. Most of those objects about which the practi- 
cal reason of man is employed in common life, receive their 
names from the Anglo-Saxon. It is the language for the 
most part of business : of the counting-house, the shop, the 
market, the street, the farm : and however miserable the 
man who is fond of philosophy or abstract science might be, 

if he had no other vocabulary but this, we must recollect 
21 



INTRODUCTION 

that language was made not for the few but the many, and 
that that portion of it which enables the bulk of a nation 
to express their wants and transact their affairs, must be 
considered of at least as much importance to general hap- 
piness, as that which serves the purposes of philosophical 
science. 

" Sixthly. Nearly all our national proverbs, in which it 
is truly said, so much of the practical wisdom of a nation 
resides, and which constitute the manual and vade-mecum 
of hob-nailed philosophy, are almost wholly Anglo-Saxon. 

" Seventhly. A very large proportion (and that always 
the strongest) of the language of invective, humor, satire, 
and colloquial pleasantry, is Anglo-Saxon. As to invective, 
the language of passion is always very ancient ; for men 
were angry and out of temper long before they were phi- 
losophers or even merchants. The yocabulary of abuse 
amongst most nations is not only very copious, but always 
singularly hearty and idiomatic. Almost all the terms and 
phrases by which we most energetically express anger, 
contempt, and indignation, are of Anglo-Saxon origin. 
Nearly all the obnoxious words and phrases which cause 
duels and sudden pugilistic contests, are from this language ; 
and a very large proportion of the prosecutions for ' assault 
and battery,' ought, in all fairness, to be charged on the 
inconvenient strength of the vernacular. The Latin, we 
apprehend, much to its credit, is very rarely implicated in 
these unpleasant broils, although it often has a sly way of 
insinuating the very same things without giving such deadly 
offence. Again, in giving expression to invective, we 
naturally seek the most energetic terms we can employ. 
These, as already said, are the terms which are the most 
special in their meaning, and the bulk of such words are 
Anglo-Saxon, particularly those which denote the outward 

modes of action and the personal peculiarities indicative of 
22 



INTRODUCTION. 

the qualities that serve either to excite or express our con- 
tempt and indignation. Once more, the passions often 
seek a more energetic expression in metaphor and other 
tropes ; but then such figures are always sought — and 
necessarily, considering the purpose — in mean and vulgar 
objects, and the majority of the terms which denote such 
objects are Anglo-Saxon. The dialect of the scullery and 
kitchen alone furnishes our newspaper writers with a large 
portion of their figurative vituperation, and it is hard to 
say what they would do without ' scum,' l dregs,' ' off- 
scouring,' 'filth,' and the thousand other varieties sup- 
plied from such sources. Similar observations apply to the 
language of satire and humor. The little weaknesses, the 
foibles, the petty vices, the meannesses, the ludicrous pecu- 
liarities of character, with which these are chiefly con- 
cerned, as well as the modes of speech, dress, action, 
habit, etc., by which such peculiarities are externally in- 
dicated, are for the most part Anglo-Saxon. Here, too, 
as in giving expression to invective, the speaker or writer 
is anxious for the sake of energy to secure the utmost spe- 
ciality of terms ; while the metaphors and other forms of 
figurative expression, to which he is prompted by the very 
same reasons, are necessarily drawn from the most familiar, 
ordinary, and often vulgar objects. As to the language of 
familiar dialogue and colloquial pleasantry, we know it is 
always in a high degree idiomatic both in the terms and 
phrases employed, and in the construction, and this is a 
principal reason why the comic drama in every language 
—and we may say the same of satire — is so difficult to a 
foreigner. 

11 Lastly, it may be stated as a general truth, that while 
our most abstract and general terms are derived from the 
Latin, those which denote the special varieties of objects, 
qualities, and modes of action, are derived from the Anglo- 



INTRODUCTION. 

Saxon Thus, move and motion are very general terms, 
and of Latin origin ; but all those terms for expressing 
nice varieties of bodily motion, enumerated some time 
since, as well as ten times the number which might be 
added to them, are Anglo-Saxon. Sound is perhaps Latin, 
though it may also be Anglo-Saxon, but to buzz, to hum, to 
clash, to rattle, and innumerable others, are Anglo-Saxon. 
Color is Latin, but white, black, green, yellow, blue, red, 
brown, are Anglo-Saxon. Crime is Latin, but murder, 
theft, robbery — to lie, to steal, are Anglo-Saxon. Member 
and organ, as applied to the body, are Latin and Greek, 
but ear, eye, hand, foot, lip, mouth, teeth, hair, finger, nostril, 
are Anglo-Saxon. Animal is Latin, but man, cow, sheep, 
calf, cat, are Anglo-Saxon. Number is immediately 
French, remotely Latin ; but all our cardinal and ordinal 
numbers, as far as million, are Anglo-Saxon, and that would 
have been so too, if it had ever entered the heads of our 
barbarous ancestors to form a conception of such a num- 
ber." 

How, then, can it be doubted, after this beautiful sum- 
mary of all the words, inflections, grammatical influences, 
and advantages, that we have derived from the Anglo- 
Saxon, that the most certain and shortest method of arriv- 
ing at a thorough and correct comprehension of the Eng- 
lish is by the study of its most important and powerful 
element ? What chemist would think himself acquainted 
with the properties and characteristics of water, who did 
not know the virtues of oxygen ? What mineralogist 
could lay claim to a knowledge of the Granite Rock, who 
knew not the properties of Mica, or Feldspar, or Quartz ? 
His knowledge would extend no further than that of the 
daily laborer, whose life, is spent in hewing the rock into 
shape — or of the South American water carrier, whose 
estimate of the properties of his commodity is regulated 

2A 



INTRODUCTION. 

by the supply and demand. How often has it been re- 
peated that a study of the classics is important, because 
it enables us to understand more thoroughly and employ 
more correctly English words ! And yet we do not derive 
one half the number of words from the Latin and Greek 
together, that we do inherit from the Anglo-Saxon ; and, 
as we have before shown, in the still more important in- 
fluence on the construction and character of our tongue, 
the classical languages bear no comparison with the Anglo- 
Saxon. Indeed, with the exception of some synonyms, 
and some few mere liquid and poetical derivatives, our 
Teuton brethren, the Germans, have acted more wisely in 
making their language all-sufficient for itself, and in form- 
ing their technical and scientific compound words from ele- 
ments preexisting in their own vernacular. They have no 
occasion to do it, and do not resort to what are called the 
learned languages for their scientific and metaphysical ex- 
pressions ; and yet no one will pretend to deny, that, as 
they are the deepest and finest thinkers, so also are they 
amply supplied with words expressive of the nicest distinc- 
tions in German transcendentalism, and of the most accurate 
definitions in science.* Instead of calling in the aid of the 
Greek to teach them Geography and Astronomy, they are 
given the same information under the far more expressive 
and idiomatic words E rdheschreihung and Stemkunde ; 
instead of relying on the Latin for venesection and ampu- 
tation, they are equally skilful with the good old German 
compounds aderlassen and abschneidung — words, which, 
compounded of elements already existing in the language, 

* We are aware that some of the late German writers, hankering 
after foreign idioms, have adopted the French Synonyms of scien- 
tific words derived from, the Latin and Greek, instead of their own 
compounds, and, like Carlyle, have only marred the beautiful origi- 
nal bv their unnecessary Latinisms and Hellenisms. 
"23 3 



INTRODUCTION. 

are far more forcible, because the components themselves 
bring to our minds ideas independently of their connexion, 
just as play-fellow, sweet-heart, and love-letter, speak more 
directly to the feelings than companion, mistress, and billet- 
doux, and as thunder-bolt, earth-quake, and whirlpool, carry 
destruction in their very sound. 

We would not wish to be understood, as denying that 
our language has derived greater variety, more elegance, 
and in some cases more aptness of expression, from the in- 
termixture of Latin and Greek words. There can be no 
doubt that to these languages we are indebted for many in- 
valuable synonyms, for many beautiful and sonorous words, 
and for some modes of expression that we would not wil- 
lingly part with : but in most cases, their assistance has 
been rendered at the expense of vigor and vividness- 
Strength has been sacrificed to beaut} r , earnestness to ele- 
gance. Still less would we wish to be understood by 
what we have said as inculcating an entire neglect of the 
study of the classics. No one can delight more in dwell- 
ing on "the linked sweetness long drawn out," of the in- 
comparable Homer ; no one can enjoy more keenly the 
beauties of Virgil, or laugh with more real heartiness over 
the comedies of Terence ; no one can appreciate more 
fully, or feel more forcibly the strength, the beauty, and 
the taste, displayed in the immortal orations of Demosthe- 
nes and Cicero than we have ever done. We would not 
have them neglected or disparaged. But if they are to 
be read and studied for the purpose of acquiring a more 
correct and intimate knowledge of our own language, how 
much more does the Anglo-Saxon merit the attention of 
the English, or American, or German student ? If they 
are not to be neglected, and if so much time is spent in 
their acquisition by our youth, how much more of the stu- 
dent's time ought to be devoted to the great fountain of 



INTRODUCTION. 

his mother tongue ? We would have every one of our 
youth make himself acquainted with the character, con- 
struction, and vocabulary of this language. Deep scho- 
larship in Anglo-Saxon we do not expect. That must of 
course be a rare commodity in any country — rarer in ours 
for reasons already assigned : but a general acquaintance 
with the language we firmly expect and sincerely hope to 
see a very common and ordinary acquirement at no remote 
period — a period when, indeed, it will be considered dis- 
graceful to a well-bred Englishman or American — " utterly 
disgraceful to a man who makes the slightest pretensions 
to scholarship, to be ignorant as multitudes — otherwise 
well-informed — now are of the history and structure of the 
English tongue ; and above all, of the genuine relations of 
modern English to that ancient dialect of the great Teu- 
tonic family, which has ever been and still is incomparably 
the most important element in its composition." 

But to those who aspire to be orators or poets, this 
study recommends itself with peculiar force. If the 
speaker is desirous of appealing to the passions — of arous- 
ing the inmost feelings, he must resort to those words 
which present most strongly and vividly to the mind the 
idea he is endeavoring to impress. And surely those 
words which are most specific — those expressions which 
are associated with our earliest and tenderest feelings — 
those phrases which bring to mind our closest ties, are 
such as are best calculated to rivet our attention and chal- 
lenge our sympathy. And all such words are, as we have 
already said, native Saxons. If the poet would pour forth 
a song framed to draw the tear from the manly eye ; if he 
would bind together stanzas that should fire us with feel- 
ings of indignation, or arouse us to deeds of valor, he 
must seek for tender associations, or for strong and ener- 
getic language, in the suggestive words derived from the 

27 



INTRODUCTION. 

Anglo-Saxon. Examine the speeches of those English 
or American orators who have been the most effective and 
powerful in addressing an assembly — who have been best 
able to play upon the feelings, " sive risus essent mo- 
vendi, sive lachrymae ;" analyse those English national 
songs which have electrified whole bodies of men, and 
stirred up to unparalleled exertion armies of soldiers, and 
see whether three-fourths of the words in both are not 
Saxon " as it were to the marrow bone." On the atten- 
tion of the divine, the philosopher, and the philologist, it 
urges its strongest claims, in being an important and inte- 
resting link in the chain of Ethnography. The latest and 
most astonishing discoveries in modern science — the most 
improved theories of light — the revelations of geology — the 
chronology of the Chinese — the city of Petra — all that at 
first seemed to wage war with the Mosaic cosmogony, has 
only tended to confirm the sacred account ; and we do not 
doubt that the further inquiries and researches of such 
men as Wiseman, the younger Adelung, and William von 
Humboldt, will place Ethnography among the first of sci- 
ences, as showing conclusively that all the various lan- 
guages, dead and living, were derived from one original 
common parent. The study of the Anglo-Saxon will fur- 
ther this result ; and therefore must its introduction be 
acceptable to the friends of the Bible. 

In the following pages the Author of the Anglo-Saxon 
Grammar (so far as the writer of this Introduction is able 
to judge, or has had an opportunity of examining) has 
brought together all that is valuable and known in regard 
to the structure and grammatical accidents of the language. 
The sources from which he has had to draw, and the ma- 
terials with which he was obliged to construct, are well 
known to all scholars, to be limited indeed ; and we feel 
that we are but doing sheer justice, and not stepping aside 

28 



INTRODUCTION, 

from propriety, when we say thus in advance, that he has 
made the. best and most advantageous structure possible 
out of such scanty materials, and has wisely and judiciously 
drawn from such limited sources. This is the only com- 
plete Grammar of the language with which we are ac- 
quainted, and certainly the only Anglo-Saxon Grammar 
published in this country. We hope, therefore, that it will 
not need to be stamped first with the seal of European ap- 
proval, before it can be received into favor in our own coun- 
try : but that it will at once, as it certainly deserves, meet 
with its proper reward, and be adopted as a text-book in our 
Colleges and High Schools. To that purpose it will be 
found adapted no less from its size and cheapness, than its 
real worth. At the same time that it contains all that is 
necessary and valuable on the subject, it is not encumbered 
with labored references to collateral languages, which are 
thought to exhibit great research in the compiler, particu- 
larly in reference to- a language but little known. From 
this, the Author (with all the learning that we know him 
to possess) has judiciously abstained, even at the expense 
of not being considered so good a linguist as he actually is. 
At the request of the publishers, and with the permis- 
sion of the Author, we have written these pages in the 
hope that they may serve, in some slight measure, to 
awaken the attention of the American public to the im- 
portance of the study of the Anglo-Saxon, and may aid by 
that means in increasing the admiration which we ought to 
entertain for our noble and sonorous language ; so that 
every one may realize the praises bestowed upon it by old 
Camden, who, in his quaint " Remains," assures us that, 
" Whereas our tongue is mixed, it is no disgrace. The 
Italian is pleasant, but without sinews, as a still, fluting 
water. The French, delicate, but even nice as a woman, 
scarce daring to open her lippes for fear of marring her 

29 3* 



INTRODUCTION. 

countenance. The Spanish, majesticall, but fulsome, run- 
ning too much on the o, and terrible as the devill in a play. 
The Dutch, manlike, but withal very harsh, as one ready 
to pick a quarrel. Now we, in borrowing from them, give 
the strength of consonants to the Italian ; the full sound of 
words to the French ; the variety of terminations to the 
Spanish, and the mollifying of more vowels to the Dutch : 
and so, like bees, we gather the honey of their good pro- 
perties, and leave the dregs to themselves. And thus, 
when substantialnesse combineth with delightfulnesse, full- 
nesse with firmnesse, seemlinesse with portlinesse, and cor- 
rectnesse with stay'dnesse, how can the language which 
consisteth of all these, sound other than full of all sweet- 
ness ?" 

Baltimore, Md. 9 April, 1848. 



PART I— ORTHOGRAPHY. 



CHAPTER I, 

THE ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION. 

§ 1. The Anglo-Saxon Alphabet contains twenty-three 
letters, which we give with their proper representatives in 
the Roman character, and with their correct sounds. 1 



Form. 




Rep. and 


Sound. 




A 


a 


a 


a 


as in 


fat. 


B 


b 


b 


be 


?? 


bad. 


E 


c 2 


c 


ke 


» 


cot. 


D 


b 


d 


de 


">•> 


did. 


e 


e 3 


e 


e 


?? 


met. 


F 


r 


f 


ef 


» 


find. 


It 


s 5 


g 


ghe 


•>•> 


got. 


£ 


h 6 


h 


ha 


5? 


hat. 


I 


i 7 


i 


i 


if 


pin. 


L 


1 


1 


el 


-)"> 


Iambi 


CD 


m 


m 


em 


V 


me. 


N 


n 


n 


en 


)> 


neat. 





o 








» 


not. 


P 


P 


P 


pe 


» 


pence. 


R 


J* 


r 


er 


» 


rise. 


S 


r 


s 


es 


» . 


sir. 


T 


c 


t 


te 


?> 


term. 


r> 


r 


th 


tha 


?> 


thing. 


D 


$ 


th 


edh 


tt 


smooth. 


U 


u 9 


u 


u 


jj 


full. 


F 


? 


w 


we 


V 


willow. 


X 


X 10 


X 


ix 


V 


six. 


Y 


y" 


y 


y 


?? 


lyrical 


31 













ORTHOGRAPHY. 

§ 2. a is pronounced like a in fate ; e like e in mete ; i 
like i in pine ; u like oo in coo/; and # like y in /yre. J.e 
has the sound of a in glad, and with the accent, one some- 
what broader and more diphthongal. 13 

§ 3. The letters j, k, q, v, and z, are not found in genu- 
ine Anglo-Saxon. C was used for k, as in Latin, and cw 
for q. V was only employed as a u calligraphic variation 
of «," 1S while the proper soft sound of z was never admit- 
ted in the language. 

§ 4. The Anglo-Saxons used the following abbrevia- 
tions : for anb aud, *] and J- : for J>at and }>aet that, p : 
and for oftfte or, and -lice -ly, I. To denote the omis- 
sion of m likewise, they made a short stroke over the pre- 
ceding letter : as, J»a for }>am to the : }>onne then, they 
wrote }>6n. 

§ 5. The only signs or notes of distinction which they 
employed, were one dot at the end of each sentence, or of 
each line of a poem, and three at the close of a complete 
discourse. 14 

§ 6. The Accentuation will be found wanting for the 
most part in the printed copies of Anglo-Saxon works, 
and in some it is altogether omitted. It was generally 
neglected by the older transcribers. 16 The student will 
perceive how necessary it is to the proper pronunciation 
of the language and in fixing the signification of words. 
Comparison with the Friesic, Lower German, Dutch, Ice- 
landic, and English, throws much light upon the subject. 



NOTES. 



1 See Appendix A. 



a c : ch, and tch have in many instances succeeded to this letter, 
either single or double, in the formation of the English: thus, cild 
a child, wrecca a wretch. A similar transition has taken place in 
Swedish from the Old Norse, and in Italian from the Latin, but with- 

32 



NOTES. 

out a change of orthography. K, which expresses the peculiar sound 
of c, has also been adopted : as, cyng a king. Sc has very often passed 
into sh : as, rise, a fish, biscop or bisceop a bishop, naturalized from the 
Greek liritrKonog. 

It is probable that c was sometimes pronounced like Tc followed by 
y consonant, especially before the soft vowels, a sound still heard in 
cart , carve, and a few other words : as, cealf, cielf, pron. Jcyelf. Sc 
follows the same analogy, and was sounded like sk as occasionally 
heard in shy. 

3 e : e before a, o, had the sound of y consonant, as in eorl, E ad- 
ward, eow, pronounced yorl, Yddward, yow, whence it appears to be 
inserted after c and g. .It is also omitted after these two letters, and 
sometimes interchanged with i. 

A f: /at the end of a syllable, or between two vowels had probably 
the sound off, whieh is further evident from the substitution of v, in 
its place in many instances. 

6 g:g follows the analogy of c, but it seems also to have had a 
third sound, that of y, when placed between two of the letters e, i, y, 
or ae, and not unlikely at the end of words. It had the sound of y in 
the Moeso-Gothic, a sister dialect of the Anglo-Saxon, and easily 
passed into that letter in English : as, gear a year, daeg a day, ta'egl 
a tayl, and by a further change, tail. Cg is usually written for gg : 
as, licgan for liggan to lie down. 

It is probable that the liquid sound of c and g did not exist in the 
earlier period of the language. Subsequently other consonants ac- 
quired the same sound before u, as now heard in pure, tune, etc. 

6 h : the sound of h was very hard, as in heord a herd. At the 
end of a word or syllable, or united with another consonant in clos- 
ing a syllable, it was guttural, as is plain from the later and stronger 
orthography, thurh through, leoht light, dohtor a daughter, in which 
gh has taken the place of simple h. 

It is to be regretted that in English there has been a transposition 
of the h when naturally coming before the w : as, hwit white, hwaer 
where, hwa who. 

7 i; i has the sound of y consonant before e or u, as in iett yet, 
iugoth youth. Hence, it is said, the insertion of g in the present 
tense and present participle of all verbs in -ian : as, ic lufige, for ic 
lufie J love ; lufigende, for lufiende loving, from lufian to love. But 
see further, § 408. 

8 ]? is the Runic D, which in some of the dialects was pronounced 

33 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

TH. £) is a Roman capital with a small hyphen. These two cha- 
racters are often confounded by writers. 

b represents the hard and $ the soft sound of th. The former is 
generally used at the beginning, and the latter at the end of words and 
syllables. Rather than retain these two characters as is usually 
done in adopting the Roman, we have distinguished the tha from the 
edh by two dots under the th, which represents it : as, th. 

The English sometimes has the soft sound of th where the Anglo- 
Saxon has the hard one, as in this, there ; and vice versa. 

9 u : u before a vowel has the sound of v. 

10 x : this letter is but seldom used. Its constituents cs are pre- 
ferred. 

11 y : the sound of this letter originally approached nearer that of 
the French u or the German u, than any which we have in English. 
The z'-sound, however, must have taken its place at a very early 
period. 

12 Ae is set down by some as a distinct letter, as the Anglo-Saxons 
never admitted diphthongs, and such it must always be considered. 
Oe is seldom met with. It was introduced by the Scandinavians, 
but never adopted to any extent. Its sound is that of e. 

13 Hence the peculiar form of our w, in Old Saxon written uu. 
But the Anglo-Saxon character is very ancient, — probably Runic in 
its origin. 

14 In employing the Roman character, we have thought it better to 
introduce the signs now in use. 

* The grave, circumflex, and acute accents have all three been 
sometimes employed, but we think that the last alone is sufficient for 
all practical purposes. It is now impossible, to determine the nice 
shades of pronunciation in the language. 



34 



CHAPTER II. 



CHANGE OF LETTERS 



§ 7. The student will observe many irregularities in the 
Anglo-Saxon language. These proceeded from the variety 
of writers, their little acquaintance with each other, the 
inevitable changes introduced by the lapse of time, and 
other causes. Irregularities must obtain to a great extent 
in the early stage of every language. 1 

The Anglo-Saxon writers very often confounded some 
letters, and used them indifferently for each other. They 
transposed, substituted, and inserted or added both vowels 
and consonants. The following are some of the principal 
changes. 2 

1 . With regard to Consonants. 
§ 8. -S,/, and u before a vowel, 3 are often interchanged : 

1 Many of the various forms of words that we meet with evidently 
owe their existence to the carelessness of transcribers, while others 
belong to a difference of dialect. The Anglo- Saxon in its purest 
days, though in its early stage, was a highly cultivated tongue, with 
all the elements of indefinite improvement within itself. 

2 The changes or permutations which letters, especially the vow- 
els, undergo in the derivation and inflection of words in Anglo-Saxon, 
are very numerous. These will be better learned as they appear in 
their proper places. « 

3 Also p. " In all languages, and especially in the dialects of cog- 
nate languages, the letters employing the same organs of utterance 
are continually interchanged." 

35 



CHANGE OF LETTERS. 

as, beofer, beber a heaver ; l'fig, iuig ivy; ofer, ober, ouer 
over. 

§ 9. C interchanges with g, k and q : * as, thonces, thonges 
of thanks; cyth, kyth kindred; cwen, quen a woman, wife, 
queen. It also, either single or double, frequently becomes 
h before s or th, and especially before t : as, ahsian for 
acsian, or axian to ask ; he sehth for he secth he seeks, from 
secan to seek ; hi strehton for hi strecton they stretched, 
from streccan to stretch. 

§ 10. D and t are often used indiscriminately for each 
other : as, he mette for he metde he met, from metan to 
meet. 

§ 11. G is changed into h in many cases : as, dahum 
for dagum with days ; burh for burg a town. It is added 
to words which end with i : as, hig for hi they ; and omit- 
ted in those which terminate in ~ig : as, dri for drig dry. 
It is also omitted before d and th : as, maedn for maegdn 
a maiden ; maeth for maegth power ; and before n, it is 
either left out, or gn becomes gen, or is transposed to ng : 
as, waegn, waen a wagon, vmin ; thegn, then, thaegen, 
theng, a servant, thane; regn, ren, reng rain. Ng is like- 
wise changed into nc and ngc : as, sang, sane a song ; ring, 
ringc a ring. 

§ 12. H is sometimes changed into g : as, he thag for 
he thah he grew, from theon to grow. It is also found 
added to monosyllables ending in a vowel : as, freoh for 
freo free. 

§ 13. L is written double or single indiscriminately at 
the end of monosyllables, but the reduplication ceases 
when, in lengthening the word, a consonant follows: as, 
well or wel well; N. eall, A. eal-ne all. It is also fre- 
quently aspirated : as, hlutan for lutan to bow. 



4 K and q in later Saxon. Q combining one u- sound in itself, is 
followed by this letter instead of w, when substituted for c. 



CHANGE OF LETTEBS. 

§ 14. M sometimes interchanges with/: as, emne- 
theow, efne-theow a fellow-servant. 

§ 15. iV" follows the same law in regard to reduplication 
as /. 

§ 16. R is often transposed in words : as, forst for frost 
frost ; gaers for graes grass. Like /, too, it is aspirated ; 
as, reod, hreod a reed; reol, hreol a reel. 

§ 17. X is frequently supplied by cs : as, neorcsen for 
neorxen quiet ; or, it is changed into sc : as, tusc for tux 
a tusk or tuks. 

2. With regard to the Vowels. 

§ 18. A and ae interchange as follows : 

A and ae: as, apl, aepl an apple ; aecer, acer a field. 

A , aa, ae, ai and e : as, ac, aac, a'ec an oak ; ad, aad 
a heap ; a'er, ar, er ere, before ; an, a'en, ain one. 

A and e : as, arc, ere an ark ; elne, alne an ell. 

A and o, particularly before n in a short syllable : as, 
man, mon a man ; sand, sond sand ; ob, ab a beam. 

Ae and e: as, aeft, eft again; egsa, aegsa/ear. 

Ae and oe : as, aeghwaer, oeghwaer everywhere. 

Ae and y : as, aelc, ylc each one. 

§ 19. Ej ea and eo as follows : 

JE, ae and ei : as, ege, aege, eige terror. 

.Ea, e, a, ae, and eo: as, ceaster, cester a fortified town ; 
eall or eal, al, ael all ; Easter, Eoster Easter. Ed, e and 
ae: as, eac, ec, a'ec also; ea, a'e water; ed and #: as > 
eathelic, ythelic easy. 

Eo, e and y : as, seolf, self, sylf self ; ea, io and i : as, 
seoc, seac, sioc, sic sick ; cm, and m, especially after iy : 
as, eowu, euwa an ewe ; sweord, swurd a sword. 

Note. — E is not unfrequently added at the end of words which 
do not require it, and rejected in many cases where it naturally 
belongs. 

37 



CHANGE OF LETTERS. 

§ 20. / is interchanged with e and y : as, igland. egland, 
ygland (igland, egland, ygland ?) an island ; and likewise 
goes into ie and ii : as, il (il ?), iel, iil a hedge-hog. T and y 
also interchange : as. hi, \\j they. 

§21. is changed into e, i, u and y besides a : as, on, 
an, en, in in ; pearroc, pearruc a park ; ofer, yfer a shore. 

§ 22. U is sometimes converted into eo, o and y : as, 
scucca, sceocca, scocca a devil; ufera, yfera higher. 

§ 22. Y is changed into e, o, ie and i : as, yip, elp an 
elephant ; yrf, orf, ierfe, erfe cattle ; ylc, ilc same. Also #, 
into eo and u : as, yrre, eorre ire, anger ; ytra, litra outer. 

§ 24. The forms which the same word often assumes, 
are various : as, safe, se, seo, sewe, siew a sea ; hwom, 
hwem, hwaem, hwamm, huomm, waem a corner ; stare, 
staer, stearn, staern a thrush ; rinan, renian, regnan, hregnan 
to rain; forod, forad, forud, frod old, debilitated? 

6 The most of the forms coming under our notice in the inflection 
of words, will be given tor the convenience of the student. 



PART II— ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER I. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



§ 25. There are nine Parts of Speech : the Article, 
Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, 
Conjunction and Interjection. 

§ 26. These are divided into declinable and indeclinable. 

The declinable Parts of Speech are, the Article, Noun, 
Adjective, Pronoun and Verb : the Adverb, Preposition, 
Conjunction and Interjection are indeclinable. 



NUMBERS. 

§ 27. There are two Numbers in Anglo-Saxon, the Sin- 
gular and Plural : as, smith a smith, smithas smiths. A 
Dual form, however, evidently exists in the pronoun of 
the First and Second Persons : as, ic I, wit we two : tliu 
thou, gyt ye two. 1 

§ 28. Nouns follow the declension to which they belong 
with regard to the formation of their plurals. But some 
are the same in both numbers : as, cild child, or children ; 

1 Wit and git as Duals are also found in the Moeso- Gothic. One 
might suppose them to he the remains of a Dual that existed gen- 
erally in a more original language. But is not wit contracted from 
we we, and twegen, twa two] and gyt from ge ye and twegen, twa ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 

wif wife, or wives ; word word, or words. Others are used 
only in the singular : as, gold gold ; seolfer silver ; while 
many names of nations are found in the plural alone : as, 
Dene the Danes; Angle the Angles. Irregular plurals 
also exist : as, hoc a hook, be'c books ; mus a mouse, mfs 
mice; aeg an egg, aegru eggs. 

CASES. 

§ 29. The Cases are four, the Nominative, Genitive, 
Dative and Accusative. 2 

GENDERS. 

§ 30. There are three, the Masculine, Feminine and 
Neuter. 

The Masculine and Feminine genders are often assigned 
to things without life. Hence there are two wsljs of dis- 
covering the gender of nouns : 1 . By the Signification ; 
2. By the Termination. 

1. By the Signification. 

§ 31. The names of all animals of the male kind are 
masculine and those of the female kind are feminine, what- 
ever the final letter or syllable may be. 

2. By the Termination? 
§ 32. The Masculine terminations are, 

-a ; -el, -ol, -ul, or -1 ; -els ; -end ; -ere, or -er ; -ing ; 
-m ; -nath, -ath, or -oth ; -ot, or -t ; -scype or -scipe. 

2 The Ablative case properly belongs to the Anglo-Saxon, but it 
is the same as the Dative, with the exception of a few distinct forms 
given by some grammarians. 

3 These rules for determining the gender of nouns from the final 
syllable can be only general. The best mode of ascertaining it is 
by comparison with the Icelandic and German. 

40 



GENDERS AND DECLENSIONS. 

The Feminine are, 

-d, or -t ; -en ; -estre, -ystre, or -istre ; -isse, -ysse, or 
-esse ; -ele ; -nes, -nesse, -nys, or -nis ; -u, or -o ; -ung, 
or -ing ; -uth, or -th. 

The Neuter are, 

-ed, -et, or -ed ; -ern ; -incle ; -ling. 

Note 1. — Sunne or sunna sun is feminine, and raona moon is mas- 
culine. 4 

Note 2.— The gender of compound words may be ascertained by 
that of the last part. 

DECLENSIONS. 

§ 33. There are three Declensions, the First, Second 
and Third, distinguished by the ending of the Genitive 
case singular. 

General Rules for the Declensions. 

§ 34. The Dative case singular is either like the Geni- 
tive, or it is formed from it by rejecting the s when the 
termination is -es. 

The Accusative singular is always like the Nominative, 
except when the Genitive ends in -an : it then takes the 
same termination. 

In all the declensions the Genitive plural ends in -a ; 5 
the Dative in -urn, or -on 6 and the Accusative is like the 
Nominative. 



4 The same is the case in many other languages. 

5 Sometimes preceded byew^and again by r insertive. 

6 Sometimes -an. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE ARTICLE 



§ 35. The Anglo-Saxon has two Articles, both definite : 
se, seo, thaet, and the the. The former is declinable, and 
put before proper as well as common names : the latter is 
indeclinable, and often used for all the cases of se, seo, 
thaet, especially in adverbial expressions and in corrupt 
forms of the language. 

§36. Se, seo, thaet comprises the three genders, and is 
thus declined : 

Singular. 



m. 

N. se 


f. 
seo 


n. 

thaet 


the. 


G. thaes 


tha'ere 


thaes 


of the. 


D. tham 


tha'ere 


tham 1 


to, for, with the 


A. thone 


tha 


thaet 


the. 




Plural. 




N. 


m. f. n. 

tha 


the. 




G. 


thara 


of the. 




D. 


tham 


to, for, 


with the. 


A. 


tha 2 


the. 




For the origin 


of the Article, see § 119. 



1 The peculiar form given for the Ablative singular is, 

m. f. n. 

thy' tha'ere thy'. 

As, mid thy' athe with the oath. Express forms in every case 

seem to be instrumental. 

2 The following forms are also found : se, seo ; — seo, sio, theo, 
thaeo 5 — thaet both Nominative and Accusative, that, thet : — thaes, 
thas ; — tha'ere Genitive and Dative, there ; — tham, singular and plural, 
thaem, than and thon employed chiefly in adverbial expressions, thi 
also used like the, and thy' and thig; — thone, thaene, thaenne, thaen, 
thene, thanne ; — tha, principally the plural, thin, thy' and even tegg 
and teyy ; — thdra, tha'era, and also teggra and teyyra. 

42 



CHAPTER III. 

NO UNS . 

§ 37. Nouns are divided into Proper and Common, both 
declinable. 

§ 38. Synopsis of the Declensions. 

1. j 

Singular. Plural. 





m. 




n. 


n. 


m. 


n. n. 


N, 


- 




- 


- 


-as 


-U. 


G. 


-es 




-es 


-es. 


-a 


-a -a (-ena). 


D. 


-e 




-e 


-e. 


-urn 


-um-um (-on, -an). 


A. 


- 




- 


- 


-as 


-u. 




m. 




f. 


n. 


2. 

m. 


f. n. 


N. 


-a 




-e 


-e. 


-an 


-an -an. 


G. 


-an 




-an 


-an. 


-ena 


-ena -ena. 


D. 


-an 




-an 


-an. 


-um 


-um -um. 


A. 


-an 




-an 


-e. 


-an 


-an -an. 






f. 




f. 


3. 

f. 


f. 




N. 


- 




-u. 


-a 


-a. 




G. 


-e 




■e. 


-a 


-ena. 




D. 


-e 


-e. 


-um -um (-on, -an). 




A. 


-e 




-e. 


-a 


-a. 






DECLENS: 


[ON OF 


NOUNS . 



First Declension. 
§ 39. This Declension is known by the Genitive sin- 
gular in -es. It includes a large part of the Anglo-Saxon 
nouns : almost all masculines ending in -dom, -end de- 
rived from participles, -ere, or -er, -els, -ing, -erd, -ord, 
-est, -ath, -eth, -oth, -scype, or -scipe, and generally those 
in -1, -m, -n and -r : also neuters in -e and -incle, those 



43 



ETYMOLOGY. 



ending 


in one consonant 


or more, dissyllables in -el, -ol, 


-ul, -en and -er, and the terminations -ed, -et, -od. 


§4C 


. Nouns ending in a consonant add -es to form the 


Genitive, while those in 


-e take -s alone : as, 3 




Se smith the smith. 






Singular. 


N. 


se smith 


the smith. 


G. 


thaes smith-es 4 


of the smith. 


D. 


tham smith-e 


to, for, with the smith. 


A. 


thone smith 


the smith. 
Plural. 


N. 


tha smith-as 5 


the smiths, 


G. 


thara smith-a 


of the smiths. 


D. 


tham smith-um 


to, for, with the smiths 


A. 


tha smith-as 5 


the smiths. 




Se ende G the end. 






Singular. 


N. 


se end-e 


the end. 


G. 


thaes end-es 


of the end. 


D. 


tham end-e 


to, for, with the end. 


A. 


thone end-e 


the end. 
Plural. 


N. 


tha end-as 


the ends. 


G. 


thara end-a 


of the ends. 


D. 


tham end-um 


to, for, with the ends. 


A. 


tha end-as 7 


the ends. 



3 The English Possessive or Genitive is derived from the Geni- 
tive singular of this declension, the e being omitted and the apostro- 
phe taking its place : as, Abrahames God Abraham's God, or the God 
of Abraham. 

4 -es : sometimes -as, and -ys. 

6 -as : occasionally -es; but in both cases only in that confusion 
of dialect styled Bano-Saxon. V. Analcda Anglo- Saxonica, Intro- 
duction, § 78. c Ende, aendej g:-ende. 

7 It will be observed that nouns in -e differ from those ending 

44 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

§ 41. When monosyllables having ae before a single 



vvuuvuuui vyj. UU1U1C OU, Ol, <Xi3.3U.lliC ailL/lUCl iSVllttUlC W1U11 

a, o, or w, the ae is changed into a : as, 




se 


staef 8 the letter. 
Singular. 




N. se staef 


the letter. 




G. etc. staef-es 


of the letter. 




D. staef-e 


to, for, with the letter. 




A- staef 


the letter. 
Plural. 




N. tha staf-as 


the letters. 




G. etc. staf-a 


of the letters. 




D. staf-um 


to, for, with the letters. 




A. staf-as 


the letters. 




§ 42. Neuters ending in a single or double consonant 




have the Nominative and Accusative singular and plural 




all alike : as, 




-%. 


thaet word 9 the word. 






Singular. 




N. thaet word 


the word. 




G. thaes word-es 


of the word. 




D. tham word-e 


to, for, with the word. 




A. thaet word 


the word. 
Plural. 




N. tha word 


the words. 




G. thara word-a 


of the words. 




D. tham word-um 


to, for, with the words. 




A. tha word 


the words. 




§ 43. But neuter monosyllables having ae, dissyllables 




of the same gender ending in -el, -ol, -ul, -en, -er, diminu- 





with a consonant as the foregoing, in the Nominative and Accusa- 
tive singular only. 

8 Staef staf, stef. 9 Word, wyrd 

45 



ETYMOLOGY. 



tives in -incle and likew 


r ise neuters in -e, make the Nomi- 


native and Accusative plural in -u (-0) : 10 as, 




thaet faet ll the vat. 






Singular. 


N. 


thaet faet 


the vat. 


G. 


etc. faet-es 


of the vat. 


D. 


faet-e 


to, for, with the vat. 


A. 


faet 


the vat. 
Plural. 


N. 


tha fat-u 


the vats. 


G. 


etc. fat-a 


of the vats. 


D. 


fat-um 


to, for, with the vats. 


A. 


fat-u 


the vats. 


§ 44. Dissyllables in 


-1, -n, -r, -d are often contracted 


when 


a vowel follows : 


as, 




tljaet tungel 12 the star. 






Singular. 


N. 


thaet tungel 


the star. 


G. 


etc. tungl-es 


of the star. 


D. 


tungl-e 


to, for, with the star. 


A. 


tungel 


the star. 
Plural 


N. 


tha tungl-u 


the stars. 


G. 


etc. tungl-a 


of the stars. 


D. 


tungl-um 


to, for, with the stars. 


A. 


tungl-u 


the stars. 



§ 45. Proper names in -s sometimes follow the general 
rule in forming the Genitive, and sometimes undergo no 



10 Sometimes -a instead of -u (-0). 

11 Faet, fat. 

12 Tungel, tungol, tungul, tuncgol. 

46 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

change : as, N. Remus Remus, G. Remuses Remus' '$ ; 
N. Mattheus Matthew, G. Mattheus Matthew's. 

§ 46. Some nouns of this declension transpose their 
consonants in the plural : as, disc a table, dixas tables. 

Second Declension. 
§ 47. The Second Declension, which includes all mas- 



culines in -a, all feminines in -e, -estre, -ystre, or -istre 


some 


neuters in -e, and the names of men and women ir 


-a, has the Genitive case singular in -an : as, 




witega 13 a prophet. 






Singular. 


N. 


witeg-a 


a prophet. 


G. 


witeg-an 


of a prophet. 


D. 


witeg-an 


to, for, with a prophet. 


A. 


witeg-an 


a prophet. 
Plural. 


N. 


witeg-an 


prophets. 


G. 


witeg-ena 


of prophets. 


D. 


witeg-um 


to, for, with prophets. 


A. 


witeg-an 


prophets. 




seo 1 


tunge the tongue. 
Singular. 


N. 


seo tung-e 


the tongue. 


G. 


thafere tung-an 


of the tongue. 


D. 


thaere tung-an 


to, for, with the tongue. 


A. 


tha, tung-an 


the tongue. 
Plural. 


N. 


tha tung-an 


the tongues. 


G. 


thara tung-ena 


of the tongues. 


D. 


tham tung-um 


to, for, with the tongues. 


A. 


tha tung-an 


the tongues. 




13 


Witega, witga. 



ETYMOLOGY . 

§ 48. Neuters of this declension, as all others, make the 



Accusative singular 


like the Nominative : as, 






thaet eare the ear. 






Singular. 


N. 


thaet ear-e 


the ear. 


G. 


etc. ear-an 


of the ear. 


D. 


ear-an 


to, for j with the ear. 


A. 


ear-e 


the ear. 
Plural. 


N. 


tha ear-an 


the ears. 


G. 


etc. ear-ena 


of the ears. 


D. 


ear-um 


to, for, with the ears. 


A. 


ear-an 


the ears. 


§ 49. Proper Names. 






Attila Attila. 


N. 


Attil-a 


Attila. 


G. 


Attil-an 


of Attila. 


D. 


Attil -an 


to, for, with Attila. 


A. 


Attil-an 

i 


Attila. 
seo Anna, 14 Anna. 


N. 


seo Ann-a 


Anna. 


G. 


etc. Ann-an 


of Anna. 


D. 


Ann-an 


to, for, with Anna. 


A. 


Ann-an 


Anna. 



§ 50. Names of countries and places in -a are some- 
times indeclinable : as, N. and A. Sicilia Sicily. Again, 
they are inflected as in Latin : as N. Europa, A. Eu- 
ropam Europe, the Gen. and Dat. being Europe for Eu- 
ropae. 

§51. The Genitive plural is not unfrequently contracted : 
as, Myrcna cyning king of the Mercians. 

14 i. e. the woman Anna, or the said Anna. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



Third Declension. 

§ 52. The Third Declension is known by the Genitive 
singular in -e. It includes only feminine nouns, and those 
feminines which end in a consonant, or in -o, or -u ; also 
the terminations -ung, -nis, -nes,or-nys,-uth, and in a few 
instances, -ing. 

§ 53. Nouns ending in a consonant make the Genitive 
plural in -a alone : as, 

wyln 15 a female servant. 
Singular. 

a female servant. 

of a female servant. 

to , for , with a female servant. 

a female servant, 

Plurah 

female servants, 
of female servants, 
to , for, with female servants, 
female servants. 
-u, or -o, have the Genitive plural in 
-ena, and sometimes the Accusative singular in -u : as, 

denu a den. 
Singular. 
N. den-u a den. 

G. den-e of a den. 

D. den-e to, for, with a den. 

A. den-e (u) a den. 



15 Wyln; wylen the original, uncontracted form. Nouns of this 
declension in -e and -en are often contracted in the Nominative, and 
these with others in -er, almost always in the oblique cases. 



N. 


wyln 


G. 


wyln-e 


D. 


wyln-e 


A. 


wyln-e 


N. 


wyln-a 


G. 


wyln-a 


D. 


wyln-um 


A. 


wyln-a 


6 54. Those in 







Plural 


N. 


den-a 


dens. 


G. 


den-ena 


of dens. 


D. 


den-um 


to, for, with dens. 


A. 


den-a 


dens. 



N. 


syn 


G. 


syn-ne 


D. 


syn-ne 


A. 


syn-ne 


N. 


syn-na 


G. 


syn-na 


D. 


syn-num 


A. 


syn-na 



§ 55. Those which end in a single consonant after a 
short vowel, double the final letter in the Genitive and in 
all the other cases formed according to it: as, 
syn 16 sin. 
Singular. 
sin. 
of sin. 

to , for, with sin. 
sin. 
Plural, 
sins. 
of sins. 

to y for , with sins, 
sins. 

§ 56. Nouns in -ung and others sometimes make the 
Dative singular in -a : as, fortruwunga, from fortruwung 
trust. A few also have the Accusative like the Nomina- 
tive : as, hand a hand ; miht power ; ti'd time ; woruld 
world. 11 

Irregular Nouns. 
§ 57. The few names of nations which are used only 
in the plural and terminate in -e, are thus declined, 
tha Romane the Romans. 
N. tha R6man-e the Romans. 

G. etc. R6man-a of the Romans. 

D. Roman-um to, for, with the Romans. 

A. R6man-a the Romans. 

16 Syn, sin, synn. J7 Woruld sometimes has the Genitive in -es. 

50 



N. 


sun-u 


G. 


sun-a 


D. 


sun-a 


A. 


sun-u 


N. 


sun-a 


G. 


sun-ena 18 


D. 


sun-um 


A. 


sun-a 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 

§ 58. Those masculines which end in -u, are declined 
ill the following manner : 

sunu a son. 
Singular, 
a son. 
of a son. 

to, for j with a son. 
a son. 
Plural 
sons. 
of sons. 

to, for , with sons, 
sons. 

§ 59. Nouns terminating in -or, -er, or -ur, and denoting 
relationship, whether masculine or feminine, are declined 
for the most part as follows : 

brothor 19 a brother. 
Singular. 
a brother, 
of a brother, 
to, for, with a brother, 
a brother. 
Plural. 

brothers, or brethren, 
of brothers, etc. 
to, for, with brothers, etc. 
brothers, etc. 



18 Sunena, sima. 

19 Brothor, brother and brothur. 

20 Brothra, brothru, and gebrothra, gebrothru, gebrothro. These 
nouns are very irregular. 

51 



N. 


broth-or 


G. 


broth-or 


D. 


breth-er 


A. 


broth-or 


N. 


broth-ra 20 


G. 


broth-ra 


r>. 


broth -rum 


A. 


broth-ra 20 



ETYMOLOGY. 



§ 60. Some nouns chiefly monosyllables, containing the 
vowels, a, d, u, and u, change these vowels in the Dative 
singular, and in the Nominative and Accusative plural : as, 







man 21 a man. 






Singular. 


N. 


man 


a man. 


G. 


man-nes 


of a man. 


D. 


men 


to , for, with a man. 


A. 


man 


a man. 
Plural. 


N. 


menn 22 


men. 


G. 


man-na 


of men. 


D. 


man-num 23 


to, for, with men. 


A. 


menn 22 


men. 

se toth the tooth. 
Singular. 


N. 


se toth 


the tooth. 


G. 


etc. toth-es 


of the tooth. 


D. 


teth 


to, for, with the tooth. 


A. 


toth 


the tooth. 
Plural. 


N. 


tha teth 


the teeth. 


G. 


etc. toth-a 


of the teeth. 


D. 


toth-um 


to, for, with the teeth. 


A. 


teth 


the teeth. 



21 Man, mann, mon, both Norn, and Ace. ; but sometimes mann* 
an and monnan in the latter, as if from 'manna', ' monna'. 

22 Menn, men. 

23 Mannum, manum. 

52 



N. 


cii 


G. 


cii-s 


D. 


C J 


A. 


cu 


N. 


cf 


G. 


cii-na 


D. 
A. 




c 7 


N. 


seo burh 


G. 


etc.burg-e 


D. 


byrig 24 


A. 


burh 


N. 


tha byrig 24 


G. 


etc. burg-a 


D. 


burg-um 


A. 


byrig 24 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 
CU a COW. 

Singular. 

a cow. 

of a cow. 

to, for, with a cow, 

a cow. 
Plural. 

cows. 

of cows. 



cows. 
seo burh the city. 
Singular, 
the city, 
of the city, 
to, for, with the city, 
the city. 
Plural. 

the cities, 
of the cities, 
to, for, with the cities, 
the cities. 

§61. So also boc a book, broc breeches, fot a foot, gos 
a goose, liis a louse, miis a mouse, turf a turf, make in the 
Dative singular and in the Nominative and Accusative 
plural, bee, brec, fet, ges, lys, m^s, tyrf. 

§ 62. Faeder a father, is indeclinable in the singular, 25 

but the plural has the regular forms of the first declension. 

§ 63. Nouns in -eo, or -eoh, preserve the 6 through all 

the cases except the Genitive and Dative plural : as, feo 

(feoh) money, Gen. feos, Dat. feo, etc. 

24 Byrig, by rib, byrg, byrh, • 

25 Faederes is sometimes found in the Genitive 

63 5* 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 64. Sa'e sea, a'e law, and ea water, are not declined in 
the singular, except in the Genitive, which, especially in 
composition, makes sa'ees, sacs and eas in the case of those 
two nouns. 26 

§ 65. Some nouns in -u change this letter into w or ew 
in the oblique cases : as, seam 27 device. Gen. searewes, or 
searwes, etc. Eowu 28 a ewe, has eowes in the Genitive 
singular, and eowa in the Nominative and Accusative 
with eowena in the Genitive plural. 

§ 66. Feld 29 a field, has felda in the Dative, while the 
Genitive terminates in -es. 

§ 67. The Dative of duru a door, is dura and duran 
besides the regular form dure. 

§ 68. Freond 30 a friend, and feond 31 an enemy, have 
frjnd and fynd in the Nominative and Accusative plural. 

§ 69. The termination -waru the population of a place 
collectively, has -e, -as, or -an in the Nom. plural. 

§ 70. The inflection of names of men formed from femi- 
nine substantives is according to that of their primitives. 

§ 71. Some nouns are indeclinable throughout : as, 
aethelo nobility. 

ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF NOUNS. 

§ 72. Nouns may be divided into Primitive and Se- 
condary. 

§ 73. All Primitive Nouns in Anglo-Saxon are mono- 
syllabic in their nature : as, wer a man, ac an oak, mod 
mind, heord a herd. 

§ 74. From these Primitive Nouns were originally 
formed many adjectives and verbs, which gave birth in 

26 Ed, ewe, also has the form \6 for the Dative. 

27 Seara, searo, syru. w Eoivu, euwa. 

2 9 Feld, feald, fild. 30 Freond, frend, friend, 

si Feond, fiend. 

54 



ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF NOUNS. 

turn to other nouns. It was also by combining two or 
more words that many were made. These either appear 
with their constituents in full, or they present one com- 
plete word or more, together with the fragment of another 
having a definite signification. 

§ 75. The Secondary Nouns were formed : 

1. By the union of two or more primitive nouns : as, 
accorn an acorn, from ac an oak, and corn a corn ; win- 
treow a vine, from win wine, and treow a tree ; ealand an 
island, from ea water, and land land. 

2. By adding significant terminations, which are in fact 
other nouns, to primitive nouns and words already com- 
pounded, or derived : 32 as, cildhad childhood, from cild a 



32 The following are the most of the terminations with definite 
meanings, which enter into the composition of common nouns : 

-a, denoting a person, an agent or actor, and sometimes an inanimate 
object. 

-dom, expressive of authority, property, right, office, quality, state or 
condition : Eng. -dom. . 

-e, denoting either a person, or an inanimate object. 

-els. causative. 

-end, denoting the agent. 

-en, with the idea of possession, or subjection. 

-ere, -er, from wer a man, and signifying a person or agent : Eng. -ex 

-em, from aern a house or room, denoting place. 

-estre, -istre, -ystre, either a complete word or the fragment of a 
word once probably signifying a woman : Eng. -stress, -ess. 

-had, which expresses person, form, sex, quality, state or condition: 
Eng. -hood. 

-ing, denoting, 1. action; 2. origin, and as such forming patronymics : 
Eng. -ing. 

-isse, -ysse, -esse, softened from ides, idese, a female ; Eng. -ess. 

-lac, -la'ec, -lacu, expressive of offering or giving : Eng. -lock. 

-ling, denoting, 1. a state or condition; 2. an image, example, and 
forming diminutives, besides seeming very often to imply contempt: 
Eng. -ling. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

child, and the termination -had ; sacdere a sower or seeder, 
from sa'ed seed, and -ere ; sangistre a songstress or song- 
woman, from sang a song, and -istre ; carleasnys careless- 
ness, from carleas careless, and -nys. 

3. From verbs : as, gitsung desire, from gitsian to de- 
sire ; halgung a hallowing, consecration, from halgian to 
hallow, consecrate ; swutelung a manifestation, from swu- 
telian to manifest. 

4. By employing primitive nouns without any change 
in a variety of figurative senses : as, cniht a boy, and also 
a youth, servant, attendant, disciple, client and soldier, a 

KNIGHT. 

5. By the union of significant prefixes to primitive 
nouns and others already formed in any way: as, sib 
peace, concord, unsib discord, enmity ; rihtwfsnes, right- 
eousness, onrihtwi'snes unrighteousness ; cenning birth, ed- 
cenning regeneration. 22 

-nes, -nis, -nys, signifying quality or state, and forming abstract 
nouns : Eng. -ness. 

-raeden, denoting, 1. a state or condition ; 2. the manner, reason, law 
or rule of action. 

-ric, as a termination, expressive of dominion or power : Eng. -ric. 

-scipe, scype, signifying state, office or dignity : E)ig. -ship. 

-ster, denoting guidance, direction, from steor-e id. 

-ung, denoting action or passion. 

-waru, from wer a man. See again § 69. 

Besides these there are others the significations of which cannot 
well be defined, but which seem to denote action, condition, quality, 
endowment, or the like. They are, -ed, -od, -ot, -d, -t ; -el, -ol, -1,-elej 
„nd, -natb, -noth, -ath, oth, -uth, -th, -o. -u, etc. 

33 The prefixes being more or less common to different parts of 
speech, we deem it best to give them all in this place. They are, 

a-, ae-, negative, deteriorative or oj)positional. But a prefixed to 
verbs especially, in many cases either does not alter the meaning, 
or it adds some little force or intensity to the original signification : 
Eng. a-, sometimes in the latter sense. 



ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF NOUNS. 
PROPER NAMES. 

§ 76. The names of men and women as well as of 
places among the Anglo-Saxons being significant, are fre- 
quently compound words. Those of individuals appear to 
have been mostly the effect of caprice or the effusions of 

ael-, eall-, eal-, signifying alb: Eng. all-, al-. 

aeg-, sometimes ge-, from aelc each, every, and signifying every, 
united with pronouns and adverbs. 

and- denoting opposition. 

be- ; this prefix is used in various ways : 1. it is privative ; 2. it de- 
notes nearness 1 , intensity or excess ; 3 it usually gives an active signifi- 
cation to verbs ; 4. it seems to add nothing to the meaning : Eng. be- 
in some cases. 

ed-, signifying again. 

for- is either the English for, or it gives the idea of privation or 
deterioration. It is often confounded with fore-, although very differ- 
ent in meaning. 

ge- is employed in different ways like be-: Lit forms a sort of 
collective; 2. it often seems void of meaning ; 3. it gives verbs an ac- 
tive signification, or changes them from literal to figurative; 4. it is a 
mere augment. 

mis-, denoting a defect, an error, evil, unlikeness : Eng. mis- 

n-, negative : Eng. n-. 

on-, either privative or signifying in, on, upon: Eng. in-, un- or zVt, 
on, upon, detached. 

or-, privative. 

oth-, signifying from, out, out of; and sometimes like and-. 

to-, either to in English, or with tbe idea of deterioration. In the 
former case it should be written with the accent, in the latter, with- 
out it. 

sam-, signifying either half, or, when used as an abbreviation of 
samod, together with. 

un-, denoting privation, deterioration, or opposition. It is supposed 
either to be allied to the German ohne without, or to be derived from 
the prefix which follows. It is very probable that on- privative has 
the same origin : Eng. un-, in-. 

wan-, won-, from wana wanting, lacking, and implying a deficiency. 

wither-, denoting opposition. V. Anal., Anglo- Sax., Glossary, pass. 

57 



ETYMOLOGY. 

vanity ; but without doubt many were received from the 
illustrious in the early history of the race, and perpetuated 
from one generation to another. 34 

The following are examples of compound proper names : 

1. Names of men : as, 

Aethelwulf a noble wolf. 

Egbert bright eye. 

Dunstan a mountain stone. 

Sigfred the peace of victory. 

Eadric 35 happy and rich. 

2. Names of women : as, 

Eadgifu a blessed gift. 

Aelfgifu. an clf-favor. 

Selethrytha a good threatener. 

Wynfreda a joyous peace. 

34 The Anglo-Saxons sometimes added distinctive appellations to 
their original names. These were taken either from some peculi- 
arity of appearance, or from residence, office, trade, possession or 
affinity. Not unfrequently, too, the addition expresses the name of 
the individual's father. Thus we find, Wulfsic se blaca, Wulfsic 
the Pale; Eadric se hwita, or Eadric the White ; Aelfric aet Bertune, 
Aelfric living at Bertune; Leofwyn ealderman, or Leofwyn an Elder- 
man or Senator; Sweigen scyldwyrtha, or Sweigen a Shieldmaker ; 
Aegelpig munuc, or Aegelpig a Monk ; Eadwig his maeg, or Eadwig 
his Friend or Kinsman; Aelmaer Aelfrics suna, or Aelmaer Aelfric's 
Son; Wulfrig Madding, or Wulfrig the Son of Madd or Maddson. 
Hence the names of the Whites, Greens, Cliffords, Brightons, Alder- 
mans, Cooks, Smiths, Canons, Friends, Johnsons, Eppings, and those 
which owe their origin to ridicule or derision, and other causes. But 
it was not until after the Norman conquest that surnames became 
generally established in England. 

35 Ric is used in the composition of male names both as a prefix 
and as a termination. 

58 



ADJECTIVES. 



3. Names of places : 36 as, 

Cynges-tun the king's town, Kingston. 

Cyric-burh the church city, Chirhury. 

Waering-wic a fortress-dwelling, Warwick. 



CHAPTER IV. 

ADJECTIVES. 

§ 77. Adjectives in Anglo-Saxon have variable termi- 
nations, to correspond with the nouns which they describe. 

§ 78. They have two forms of declension, the Indefi- 
nite and Definite. 

§ 79. The Indefinite form is used when the adjective 

stands alone with its substantive : the Definite when it is 

preceded by an article, or by a demonstrative or possessive 

pronoun, even when the last is governed in the Gen. case. 

§ 80. Synopsis of the Declensions. 

Indefinite Terminations. 



N. 


Singular. 

m. f. 


n. 


Plural. 

m. f. n. 

-e. 


G. 


-es 


-re 


-es. 


-ra. 


D. 


-um 


-um 


-um. 1 


-um. 


A. 


-ne 


-e 


- 


-e. 



36 There are some terminations which are common to names of 
places : as, burh a city, tun a town, ceaster, or cester from the Latin 
castrum a fortified camp, cities so called being on such sites; -wic, 
the present -wich, as well as -wick, a dwelling, station, village, castle 
cr bay, according to the situation of the places, and others. 

1 The distinct terminations given for the Ablative singular are. 
m. f. n. 

-e -re -e. 

59 









ETYMOLOGY. 




N. 


Singul 

m. 

-a 


Definite Terminations, 
ir. 

f. n. 

-e -e. 


Plural. 

m. f. n. 

-an. 


G. 


-an 


-an 


-an. 


-ena. 2 


D. 


-an 


-an 


-an. 


-um. 


A. 


-an 


-an 


-e. 


-an. 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Indefinite Adjectives. 
§81. All Adjectives of one syllable, except those which 
contain ae before a single consonant ; also those ending in 
-e, participles in -ende, 3 -od, ed ; dissyllables in -el, etc.. 
are declined in the following manner : 

god good 



2 Indef. Participles generally have -ra instead of this termination. 

3 Nouns in -end derived from Indef. Participles and denoting the 
agent, are declined, as before stated, according to the 1st declension 
and should never be confounded with the participles themselves. 
The Anglo-Saxon writers always made the distinction. 

60 







Singular. 




m. 


f. 


n. 




N. god 


god 


god 


good. 


G. god-es 


god-re 


! god-es 


of good. 


D. god-urr 


l god-re god-um 


to, for, with good. 


A. god-ne 


god-e 

m. f. n. 


god 
Plural 


good. 


N. 


god-e 


good. 




G. 


god-ra 


of good. 




D. 


god-urn 


to, for, u 


ith good. 


A. 


god-e 


good. 




§ 82. Mono 


syllables ending in a single consonant pre- 


ceded by ae, w 


henever 


the same consonant is followed by 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 



a 9 e, 0, or w, in the course of inflection change ae into a ; 
and thesej as well as polysyllabic adjectives formed by the 
derivative terminations, -ful, -ig,-isc,-leas, -lic,-sum, etc., 
and participles passive of the 2d and 3d conjugations in 
-en, make the Nominative singular feminine, and the No- 
minative and Accusative plural neuter in,-u : 4 as, 

laet 5 late. 

Singular. 



N. 


m. 

laet 


f. 
lat-u 


n. 

laet 


late. 


G. 


lat-es 


laet-re lat-es 


of late. 


D. 


lat-um 


laet-re lat-um 


to, for , with late. 


A. 


laet-ne 


lat-e 


laet 
Plural. 


late. 




m. 

N. lat- 


f. 

e 


n. 

lat-u 


late. 




G. lael 


-ra 


laet-ra 


of late. 




D. lat- 


um 


lat-um 


to, for, with late. 




A. lat- 


e 


lat-u 


late. 


§ 83. Adjectives ending in -e, 


drop the e in declining : 


as, 






niwe new. 
Singular. 






in. 


f. 


n. 




N. 


niw-e 


niw-e 


niw-e 


new. 


G. 


niw-es 


niw-re niw-es 


of new. 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 
Plural. 

m. f. n. 


etc. 




' 


N. 


niw-e 


new. 






G. 


niw-ra 
etc. 


of new. 
etc. 



4 Adjectives formed by derivative terminations, and participles in 
-en, are found however without the feminine in -u, while the neuter 
plural terminates in -e. 

5 Laet, lat. 

61 Q 



ETYMOLOGY. 



§ 84. Those which end in a single consonant after a 
short vowel, double the consonant in declining ; but one 
consonant is omitted before -ne, -re, -ra : as, 







grim severe. 




m 

grim 




Singular. 

f. n. 

grim grim 


severe. 


grim- 
etc. 


mes 


grim-re 
etc. 


grim-mes 
etc. 


of severe 
etc. 






Plural. 






N. 


m. f. n. 

grim-me 


severe. 






G. 


grim-ra 
etc. 


of severe . 
etc. 





§ 85. Dissyllables, when the inflection begins with a 



vowel, are often contracted 







halig holy. 








Singular. 




N. 
G. 


m. 

halig; 
halg-es 


f. n. m 
halig halig 

halig-re halg-es. 


holy, 
of holy 




etc. 


etc. etc. 
Plural. 


etc. 






m. f. n. 

N. halg-e holy. 
G. halig-ra of holy. 



etc. etc. 

Definite Adjectives. 

§ 86. The inflections of Definite Adjectives are the 
same as those of the second declension of nouns. 

§ 87. The definite termination of the Nominative sin- 
gular masculine, is always -a, and that of the feminine and 
neuter, -e : as, 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 





se goda, seo 


gode, thaet gode 
Singular. v 


the good. 




m. 


f. 


n. 


N. 


se god-a 


seo god-e 


thaet god-e. 


G. 


thaes god-an 


tha'ere god-an 


thaes god-an. 


D. 


tham god-an 


thaere god-an 


tham god-an. 6 


A. 


thone god-an 


tha god-an 
Plural. 

m. f. n. 


thaet god-e. 




N. 


tha god-an. 






G. 


thara god-ena. 






D. 


tham god-um. 






A. 


tha god-an. 




§ 88. In all cases at 


i before a single consonant is changed 


into a in accordance with the rule given in § 82. 




se lata, sec 


) late, tfiaet late the late. 






Singular. 






m. 


f. 


n. 


N. 


se lat-a 


seo lat-e 


thaet lat-e. 


G. 


thaes lat-an 


tha'ere lat-an 


thaes lat-an. 


D. 


tham lat-an 


tha'ere lat-an 


tham lat-an. 


A. 


thone lat-an 


tha lat-an 
Plvral. 

m. f. n. 


thaet lat-e. 




N. 


tha lat-an. 






G. 


thara lat-ena. 






D. 


tham lat-um. 






A. 


tha lat-an. 





§ 89. Some adjectives, as, waedla poor, wana deficient , 
wanting, wraecca wretched, have only the definite form of 
declension, even when used in an indefinite sense. 

6 The peculiar form given for tue Ablative singular is made by 
thy', tha'ere, thy' : as, 

m."" f. n. 

thy' god-an tha'ere god-an thy' god-an. 

63 



ETYMOLOGY. 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

§ 90. There are three degrees of comparison, the Posi- 
tive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

§ 91. The Positive becomes the Comparative both defi- 
nite and indefinite by annexing the termination -ra for the 
masculine, and -re 7 for the feminine and neuter : as, smael 
small, smael-ra, smael-re smaller, indefinite, and se 
smael-ra, seo, thaet smael-re the smaller, definite. 

§ 92. The Superlative is formed from the Positive inde- 
finitely by adding the termination -ost or -est, and defi- 
nitely by adding -esta for the masculine, and -este 8 for the 
feminine and neuter : as, smal-est smallest, and se smal 
esta, seo, thaet smal-este the smallest. 

Irregular Comparisons. 
§ 93. The following list contains the most of these : 



Pos. 

a'er, adv. 9 


Comp. 

a'era 


Superl. 

a'erest. 


ere, before 

eald 

old 


before 
yldra 
elder, older 


first. 
yldest. 
eldest, oldest. 


feaw 




feaw ost. 


few 
feor, adv. 

far 


fyrra 
farther 


fewest. 

fyrrest. 
farthest. 



7 The termination -or, sometimes -ur and -ar, through which -ra, 
-re are ohtained, is never used but adverbially. 

8 Instead of -ost, or -est, we sometimes find -ust and -ast, and in 
the place of -esta, -este, not unfrequently -osta, -oste, we meet with 
-ista or -ysta, -iste or -yste. 

9 Variations in this and the following comparisons : 
A'er, ar, ear, er : a'era, a'erra, erra : a'erest, a'erost, erest. 
eald, aeld. 

feaw ; properly a Definitive Pronoun. See $ 107. 
feor, feorr. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



Pos. 


Comp. 


Superl. 


geong 


gyngra 


gyngest. 


young 


younger 


youngest 


god 


betera 


betst. 


good 


better 


best. 


heah 


hyrra 


hyhst. 


high 


higher 


highest. 


lang 


lengra 


lengest. 


long 


longer 


longest. 


lytel 


laessa 


laest. 


little 


less 


least. 


mycel 


mara 


maest. 


much 


more 


most. 


neah 


nearra 


nyhst. 


near 


nearer 


nearest. 


sceort 


scyrtra 


scyrtest. 


short 


shorter 


shortest. 


Strang 


strengra 


strengest 


strong 


stronger 


strongest. 


yfel 


wyrsa 


wyrst. 


em/ or 6acZ 


worse 


worst. 



Some form the Superlative by -mest, -myst, from maest 
most: as, 



geong, geonc, ging, gmng, gung : gyngra, geongra. 
betera, betra : betst, betest. 

heah, heag, heach, hea : hyrra, hyra : hyhst, hehst. 
lang, long. 

laessa, laess, indefinite. 
mycel, micel : maest, mest. 
neah, neahg, nah : nyhst, neahst. 
sceort, scort. 

Strang, strong, streng, straeng. 
wyrst, wyrrest, wyrest. 
65 „ 6* 





ETYMOLOGY. 




Pos. 


Comp. 


Super!. 


aeft, adv. 


aeftera 


aeftermest. 


behind 


after 


aftermost. 


forth, adv 


furthra 


fyrmest. 


forth 


further 


foremost. 


inneweard 


innera 


innemest. 


inward 


inner 


inmost. 


laet 


laetra 


laetemest. 


late 


later 


latest. 


midd 




midmest. 


middle 




middlemost. 


nitheweard 


nythera 


nithemest. 


downward 


lower 


nethermost. 


northeweard 




northmest. 


northward 




northernmost. 


upweard 


ufera 


ufemest. 


upward 


upper 


upmost. 


uteweard 


utra 


litemest 


and fte 


and ftera. 


and ^temest. 


outward 


outer 


outmost. 


si'th 


sithra 


si'thmest. 


late 


later 


latest. 9 



Aeft, eft, aefter, efter, aeftan : aeftermest, aeftermyst, aeftemyst, aeft- 
mest. 

fyrmest, formest, fyrst, first, fyrest. 

inneweard, inneward, inweard : innemest, innemyst, innost. 

laet, lat, as already given : laetemest, laetmyst. 

nitheweard, nytheweard, nythewerd : nythera, neothera, neothra : 
nithemest, nythmest 

sithmest, sithest. 

ufera, ufora : ufemest, ufemyst. 

uteweard, utewerd : utra, utera, uterra, uttera, uttra : and, 

y'tera, y'ttra. 



ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. 



ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

§ 94. Adjectives in Anglo-Saxon owe their origin either 
to nouns or verbs. 

1. They are nouns used in a descriptive sense : as, hige 
diligence and diligent ; lath evil and pernicious. 10 

2. They are nouns with meaning terminations added to 
them : u as, gold gold, gold-en golden ; blod blood, blod-ig 
bloody ; wer a man, wer-lic manlike, manly ; waestm/rm7, 
waestm-baer fruitful; faeder a father, faeder-leas father- 
less ; a'e a law, a'e-faest fixed in the law, pious. 



10 In the course of time slight changes were made in many in- 
stances for the purpose of distinguishing the adjective from the noun. 

11 The following are these terminations: 

-baer, -baere, -bor, having the signification of producing, and rela- 
ted to the root of beran to bear, produce, which also probably comes 
from the Teutonic bar fruit. 

-cund, denoting a kind, origin, or likeness, from cynd id. 

-e seems to be merely distinctive. 

-ed, -ad, -od, -ud, -yd, -d, -t, probably the Perfect participle of a 
lost verb, and signifying furnished or provided with. Adjectives and 
participles thus formed usually have ge- prefixed to them, and such 
words may be considered as belonging in every instance to the latter 
class. Eng. -ed, -d. 

-en and sometimes -an, from unnan to give, grant, and denoting 
addition. See farther § 408. Eng. -en. 

-ende, possibly from the same verb, the termination of participles 
indefinite. 

-ern from aern, as in nouns, and denoting towards a place. Eng. 
-ern. 

-faest, signifying fast, very, perfectly, effectually. Eng. -fast. 

-full, -ful, expressive of fulness, completeness, or perfection. It is also 
a prefix. Eng. -ful. 

-ig, signifying addition, probably from ican to eke, add. Eng. -y. 

-iht, the same. 

-18c, denoting the external quality of a subject, like. Eng. -ish. 
(P 



ETYMOLOGY. 

3. They are formed from nouns as well as from othei 
adjectives by significant prefixes : 12 as, mod mind, ae-mod 
out of mind, mad; geleafiic credible, un-geleafiic incredible ; 
mihtig 13 powerful, tir-meahtig exceedingly powerful. 

4. They are formed by the union of nouns and numerals : 
as, an-eage one-eyed, from an one, and enge an eye ; twy- 
feald twofold, double, from twy two, and feald 14 a fold. 

5. They are formed from participles : as, bebeodendlic 
imperative, from the indefinite participle of the verb be- 
beodan to command, with the termination -lie : or they 
still present the participial form alone : as, berende fruit- 
ful, from beran to bear. 

6. They present compound forms from simple adjectives, 
or from simple adjectives and participles : as, ylpen-ba'enen 
made of ivory, from ylpen belonging to an elephant, and 
baenen formed of bone ; ethel-boren noble-bom, from ethel 
noble, and boren born. 

7. They are further formed from pronouns and adverbs 
with significant terminations : as, lire-lendisc 15 of our 
country ; ute-weard outward external. 

-leas, denoting privation. It is also used as a prefix. Eng. -less 
-lie, expressive of similitude, or likeness. Eng. -like, -ly. 
-ol, -ul, -el, -al, usually denoting a mental quality. 
sum, signifying diminution^ from the pronoun sum some. Eng. 
-some. 

-weard, denoting situation, direction. Eng. -warOf. 

-wis, signifying wise. V. Anal. Anglo-Sax Gloss., pass. 

12 See § 75. Note (33). 

13 Mihtig, from miht, mealit, maeht, merit and -ig. 

u A'n-feald, twy'-feald, etc.. are considered numerals by som^ 
In that case, feald becomes a ' numeral termination.' 

15 -lendisc as a termination compounded of land land, a coivrdry^ 
and -isc, signifies belonging to a country. 



PRONOUNS, 



8. The increase of the same adjective from the Positive, 
is by means of significant endings. 16 



CHAPTER V. 



PRONOUNS 



§ 95. Pronouns in Anglo-Saxon are divided into Per- 
sonal, Adjective, Definitive, Relative and Interrogative. 

1 . Personal Pronouns. 

§ 96. These are ic, thu, he, heo, hit, with their plurals 
we, ge, hi, and the duals wit and git. 

§ 97. Declension of the First Person ic i". 







Singul 


ar. 






Plural. 


N. 


ic 


I. 




N. 


we 


we. 


G. 


min 


of me 




G. 


ure 


of us. 


D. 


me 


to, for, with 


me. D. 


us 


to, for, with us. 


A. 


me 


me. 




A. 

Dual. 


us 


us. 






N. 


wit 


we two. 








G. 


uncer 


of us two. 








D. 


unc 


to, for 


, with 


us two. 






A. 


unc 


us two 







16 The termination of the comparative is from aer before, first with 
respect to time, and then to quality : that of the superlative, from est, 
aest abwndance. Eng. -er, and -est. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



§ 98. Declension of the Second Person thu thou. 
Singular. Plural. 



N. 


thu 


thou. N. 


ge ye or you 


G. 


thin 


of thee. G. 


eower of you. 


D. 


the 


to, for, toith thee. D. 


eow to, for, with you. 


A. 


the. 


thee. A. 
Dual. 


eow you. 






N. git ye or 2/ow ftuo. 




. 


G. incer of you 


two. 






D. inc to, for, 


with you two. 






A. inc yow ftoo. 


§ 


99. Declension of the Third 


Person he, heo, hit he. 


she, 


it. 










Singular. 


Plural. 


N. 


he 


he. \ 




G. 


his 


0/ Aim. \ 




D. 


him 


to, for, with him. j 




A. 


hine 


him. § 




N. 


heo 


she. I N. 


hi they. 


G. 


hire 


of her V G. 


hira of them. 


D. 


hire 


to, for, with her. / D. 


him to, for, with them. 


A. 


hi 


her. [ A. 


hi 1 them. 


N. 


hit 


it. \ 




G. 


his 


of it. \ 




D. 


him 


to, for, with it. J 




A. 


hit 


it. J 





1 The following different forms are found in the preceding de- 
clensions : 

me, Dat. and Ace, men, mec, mech, meek: tire, user, owre : us, 
Dat. and Ace , usic, usich, usig, usih, but used chiefly by the poets : 
wit, wyt : iwc, Dative and Ace, ungc. 

70 



PRONOUNS. 



§ 100. Sylf 2 se//is declined like god, and added to per- 
sonal pronouns in the same gender and case as follows : 





Singular. 




Plural. 


N. 


icsylf 


I myself. 


N. 


wesylfe we ourselves. 


G. 


mi'nsylfes 


of myself 


G. 


liresylfra ..,, of ourselves. 




etc. 


etc. 




etc. etc. 


N. 


thiisylf 


thyself 


N. 


gesylfe ye yourselves. 


G. 


thinsylfes 


of thyself 


G. 


eowersylfra of yourselves. 




etc. 


etc. 




etc. etc. 


N. 


hesylf 


he himself. 


N. 


hisylfe they themselves. 


G. 


hissylfes 


of himself. 


G. 


hirasylfra of themselves. 




etc. 


etc. 




etc. etc. 


N. 


heosylf 


she herself. 


N. 


hisylfe they themselves. 


G. 


hiresylfre 


of herself. 


G. 


heorasylfe of themselves. 




etc. 


etc. 




etc. etc. 


N. 


hitsylf 


itself 






G. 


hissylfes 
etc. 


of itself 
etc. 







§ 101. Sylf sometimes takes the Dative of the personal 
pronoun before it : as, mesylf myself thesylf thyself him- 
sylf himself. It is also annexed to nouns : as, Petrus-sylf 
Peter's self Crist-sylf Christ himself But when used de- 
finitely, it signifies the same : as, se sylfa man the same man. 



th€, Dat. and Ace, theh, thee : cower, eowr, iower, iuer, iuerr, iur, 
iure : eow, Dat. and Ace, eowih, eowic, iow, iowih, iu, iuh, iuih, 
iuch, iwh, geow : git, gyt, inc, incg : incer, incere, incer, inca : inc, 
Dat., incg, incrum: inc, Ace, incg, incit. 

his, hys : him, hym, hien : hine, hyne : hc6, hid, used also for he 
and hi: hire, hyre, hiere : hit, Nom. and Ace, hyt, it: his, hys: 
him, hym. 

hi, Nom. and Ace, hfg, hie, hy' : hira, hyra, heora, hiora, hiera : 
him, heom, eom, hiom. 

2 Sylf silf, self, seolf. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



2. Adjective Pronouns. 

§ 102. The Adjective Pronouns are only the Genitive 
cases of personal pronouns taken and declined like the 
indefinite form of god. They are mm my, thin thy, uncer 
our two, incer your two, ure our, and eower your. The 
personal pronoun of the third person has no declinable 
adjective pronoun, but the sense of the same is always 
expressed by his, hire, hira, the Genitive cases of the 
primitive forms. 

§ 103. To define the reciprocal sense in his, hire, hira, 
more accurately, the word agen 3 own, declined like god, is 
ti elded : as, To his agenre thearfe to his own necessity. 
This sense the poets also express by sin : as, Ofsloh broth- 
or si'nne slew his own brother. 

§ 104. Declension of mm my. 



Singular. 



m. 


f. 


n. 






N. min 


min 


min 




my. 


G. mm-es 


min- 


-re min-es 




of my. 


D. min-um 


min- 


-re min-um 


to, for, with my. 


A. min-ne 


min- 


■e min 
Plural. 

m. f. n. 




my. 




N. 


min-e 


my. 






G. 


mm-ra 4 


of my. 




D. 


min-um 


to, for, with my. 




A. 


min-e 


my. 




3 Ji'gen, agan, 


agn, a'egn, agien. 






* Minra, menra. 








72 











PRONOUNS. 



§ 105. Declension of uncer our two. 
Singular. 



N. 


m. 

unc-er 


f 
unc-er 


n. 

unc-er 


our two. 


G. 


unc-res 5 


unc-re 


unc-res 


of our two. 


D. 


unc-rum 


unc-re 


unc-rum 


to, for, with our two. 


A. 


unc-erne 


unc-re 


unc-er 
Plural. 


our two. 




N. 


m. f. n. 

unc-re 


our two 


t 




G. 


unc-ra 


of our two. 




D. 


unc-rum to, for. 


with our two. 




A. 


unc-re 


our tvjo 




§ 


106. Declension of 


lire 6 our. 










Singular. 




N. 


m. 

ur-e 


f. 
ur-e 


n. 

ur-e 


OW'. 


G. 


lir-es 


ur-e 


ur-es 


of our. 


D. 


ur-um 


ur-e 


ur-um 


to, for, with our. 


A. 


ur-ne 


lir-e 


lir-e 


our. 



5 The contraction of the Possessive Pronouns in -er, when the 
syllable of inflection begins with a vowel, is common. 

6 U're, user, usser, but chiefly poetic. User has a distinct but ir- 
regular form of declension, as follows : 

Singular. 

f. n. 

us-er us-er 

us-se us-ses 

us-se us-sum 

us-se us-er 

Plural. 
m. f. n. 

us-se or us-er 
us-sa 
us-sum 
us-se or us-er 

73 





m. 




N. 


us-er 




G. 


us-ses 




D. 


us-sum 




A. 


us-erne 


N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 

7 





ETYMOLOGY. 




Plural. 




N. 


ur-e 


our. 


G. 


\ir-ra 


of our. 


D. 


lir-um 


to, for, with our 


A. 


ur-e 


our. 



3. Definitive Pronouns. 

§ 107. The Definitive Pronouns are those which define 
or point out either classes or individuals. The following 
are the most of them : 7 



aegther 


either. 


na'enig 


none. 


aelc 


each. 


naht 


nothing. 


afenig 


any. 


nan 


no one. 


aenlypig 


each. 


nathor 


neither. 


aht 


anything. 


other 


other. 


an 


one. 


sum 


some. 


athor 


either. 


swilc 


such. 


begen 


both. 


thes 


this. 


eall 


all 


thyilic 


such. 


genoh 


enough. 


unmanig 


few. 


manig 


many. 


ylc 8 


same. 



7 Others are feaw, few few, Gen. feawa, Dat. feawmn, and fela, 
faela, feala, feola much, many, many a one, also used as distributives 
with the Genitive of nouns; man, mann, mon one, they, properly a 
noun; and thyslic, thislic, like, thyllic, such, of this sort, this like. 

8 Other forms of these pronouns are: aegther, egther; — aelc, ealc, 



elc;- 



a'eneg, a'eni, a'eng, a'eniht, ani, enig, eneg ; — a'cnlypig, 



a'enlipig, a'enlipug, a'enlep, a'enlypic ; — aht, xiht, auht, awht, 
contracted from awiht, awuht, augments of wiht, wuht a thing, 
creature; — an, a'en, ain; — other, auther, aether; — begen, asunder 
the declension of the word § 109; — eall, eal, aeall, ael, all, 
al, geall; — genoh, genog, noh; — manig, maenig, maeneg, maeni, 
maneg, mani, meneg ; — na'enig, na'eneg, nenig ; — naht, neaht, 
nauht, nawht ; noht contracted from nan uht, nanwuht ; — nan, na'en 



PRONOUNS. 



§ 108. All these, with the exception of begen and thes, 
follow the inflection of indefinite adjectives. Begen and 
t&es are declined as follows : 

§ 109. Declension of begen both. 





N. 


begen 


ba both. 




G. 


beg-ra 


beg-ra of 


both. 




D. 


bam 


bam to, 


for, with both. 




A. 


ba 


ba 9 both. 


§ 


110. Declension of thes this. 










Singular. 




N. 


m. 

thes 


f. 
the 6s 


n. 

this 


this. 


G. 


this-es 


this-se 


this-es 


of this. 


D. 


this-um 


this-se 


this-um 


to, for, with this 


A. 


this-ne 


thas 


this 


this. 








Plural. 






N 


m. f. n. 

. thas 


these. 






G 


this-sa 


of these. 






D 


this-um to, for , with these. 




A 


thas 10 


these. 





nen : — ndlhor, nauther, nawther ; — other, othyr ; — sum, som ; — swilc, 
swylc, swelc ; — thes, see § 110; — thyllic, thylic, thylc, thillic, thillec ; 
unmanig, unmaneg ; — ylc, ilc. 

9 The following variations are met with: begen, beggen, beagan, 
bugan ; — bd, both Nom. and Ace, bu; — begra, begea ; — bam, ba'em. 
A compound form also appears ; as, batwa, butcr, bvitwer, buta, bute, 
literally both the two. Thus we have, Batwa Adam and Eue Adam 
and Eve both together. 

Begen, and sum signifying some, about, as sume ten some or about 
ten, are usually regarded as numerals, like anfeald, etc. Indeed sum, 
eall, and other pronouns of the kind, might very properly be styled 
indefinite numerals. The number combined with sum, in most cases, 
is put in the Genitive plural. 

10 The variations in this pronoun are : theds, thids ; — this Nom- 
and Ace, thys ; — thises, thisses, thysses, thesse3 ; — thisse, thysse 

75 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 111. The Definite that is expressed by se, seo, thaet. 

4. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. 

§ 112. The articles se, seo, thaet and the are generally 
used for the Relatives who, which, that. The Interroga- 
tives hwa who ? hwaet what ? are thus declined : 
Singular. 

m. f. n. 

N. hwa who. hwaet what. 

G. hwaes whose. hwaes of what. 

D. hwam to, for, with whom. hwam to, for, with what. 

A. hwone whom. hwaet 11 what. 

§ 113. Hwaet is sometimes used for hwa: as, Hwaet 
is thes, Who is this ? Hwaet is tiles mannes sunu, Who 
i this son of man ? 

§ 114. Like hwa, hwaet, are also declined : 

m. f. f n. 

aeghwa whoever. aeghwaet whatever. 

lles-hwa who else ? elles-hwaet what else ? 

gehwa whoever. gehwaet whatever. 

?wa-hwa-swa whosoever. swa-hwaet-swa whatsoever. 

§ 115. Hwylc 12 whol which? or what? and swa-hwylc- 

thissore, thjrssere in the Gen. and Dat. both ; thisum sing, and plur., 
thysum, thissum, thyssum, thison, thyson, theossum ; — ihisne, thys- 
ne ; — thissa, thissera. 

The express form given for the Ablative singular is, 

m. f. n. 

thise thisse thise. 

11 In this pronoun we find : hwa, hua, wua; hwam, hwa'em ; hwone, 
l.waene. 

The distinct form given for the Ablative singular is, 
m. f. n. 
hwi or hwy'. 
18 Hwylc, hwilc, hwelc. 

76 



ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF ARTICLES AND PRONOUNS. 

swa whosoever, whichsoever, or whatsoever, are declined like 
indefinite adjectives. 

§ 116. Hwylc and its compounds are often used in a 
definitive sense, signifying each, every one, etc. 

§ 117. Hwaether whether ? which of the two? has the 
same declension as hwylc. Its compounds are definitive. 

§ 118. He who is expressed by se the, or the the. 



ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE ARTICLES 
AND PRONOUNS. 

§ 119. Pronouns, as well as the Articles in Anglo-Saxon, 
have been supposed to be derived from nouns and verbs. 

1. Se, seo are said to come either from saegan to say, 
or from seon to see, and thaet and the, from t.liicgan to take. 

2. He, heo, hit are likewise considered as owing their 
origin to hatan to call, name. 

But what is the origin of ic and thu ? 

The derivation of the Articles and of the Pronouns of the 
third person from verbs we think not only very improba- 
ble and far-fetched, but unnatural. 

Se, which exchanges the sibilant for th out of the No- 
minative feminine, is in English, the ; in German, der ; 
in Dutch, de ; in Danish and Swedish, den ; while the 
initial of the kindred word in other cognate languages or 
lialects, with the exception of the Moeso-Gothic which 
has sa, is either th, or d. 13 We therefore consider the 
and theo to be more ancient forms than se and seo. 14 

Anyone closely observing the sound of the, will perceive 



ro t tv, to, or more anciently do, Or), Qor. 

14 Se is evidently a softened form of the, and so with regard to the 

Moeso-Gothic sa. 

77 7# 



ETYMOLOGY. 

that it is original and arbitrary, and in itself definite with 
regard to another person or thing. 15 

Ic, and in English, I ; in Dutch and Moeso-Gothic, ik; 
in German, ich ; in Danish, jeg ; in Swedish, jag ; in Ice- 
landic, eg, jeg ; 16 in Latin, eg-o ; in Greek, £y-u ; in Sla- 
vonic, az ; in Lithuanian, asz ; in Hebrew, as a postfix I ; 
in Zend, az-em ; in Samkrit, 17 ah-am ; in Malay, ek-o, all 
indicate a common source and an original sound pointing 
to the individual speaking in his own person. 

Thu, in English, thou ; in Dutch, German, Danish, and 
Swedish, du ; in Moeso-Gothic and Icelandic, tliii ; in 
Latin and Hindustanee, tu ; in Greek, <ru, iv ; in Slavonic 
ty ; in Lithuanian, tu ; in Hebrew a f , acta ; in Armenian, 
te, to ; in Persian, tu, tou ; in Zend, tu-m ; in Samkrit, 
tu-am ; and the like in other languages and dialects either 
nearly related or far removed from each other, is arbitrary 
in its nature, and leads the mind to the person addressed 
and in proximity. 

He, from which heo and hit are formed by a slight 
modification, in English, he ; in Dutch, hy ; in German, 
er ; in Danish and Swedish, han •, in Icelandic, hann ; in 
Hebrew, hi, seems to be simple and primitive, and to have 
reference to the person spoken of as absent. 18 

This view may be fanciful, but it is at least very plausible. 

3. Sy If self appears to be related in its derivative sylla- 
ble syl, to sawl, saul the soul. Sjel soul was used in Old 

15 Observe the difference between thaer there and her here in th»j 
organs employed to express them: the iormer in its sound determin 
ate wilh regard to another place, the latter, with regard to that wher* 
the person is speaking. 

16 J in Danish, Swedish, and Icelandic, is pronounced like y ii> 
English. 

17 V. Anal. Anglo-Sax., Introd. § 4. Note (3). 

18 The same difference is perceptible in the plural of these pro- 
nouns in all the persons, as well as in the oblique cases. 



NUMBERS. 

Swedish in the place of the modern sjelf self, and the He- 
brew nephesh was likewise employed to express either 
idea. 

A'gen own appears to be no other than agan to have or 
possess, to own ; or it may be the perfect participle of the 
same verb. 

5. Thes this in its sound seems to be definite with 
respect to something near. Compare it with thaet that. 

6. Hwa who? seems to be arbitrary, and to contain the 
interrogative within itself. 

7. Some of the Pronouns are compounded : as, maenig 
many, from man one, they, and the termination -ig ; na'enig 
no one, from ne not and a'enig anyone, and a'enig itself, from 
afen one and -ig ; hwaet what, from hwa who and thaet 
that ; hwylc which ? from hwa and lie like ; swyle such, 
from swa so and lie. Other examples might be given. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE NUMERAL. 

§ 120. The Numeral combines the Substantive and the 
Adjective, and ought to be treated as a distinct Part of 
Speech. It is divided into Cardinal and Ordinal Num- 
bers : as, an one ; se forma, seo, thaet forme the first. 

1. Cardinal Numbers. These are, 

1 an one 

2 twegen, twa, twa two 

3 thr^", threo, threo three 

4 feower four 

5 fif five 

6 six six 

79 







ETYMOLOGY . 


7 


seofon 


seven 


8 


eahta 


eight 


9 


nigon 


nine 


10 


tyn 


ten 


11 


endlufon 


eleven 


12 


twelf 


twelve 


]3 


threottyne 


thirteen 


14 


feowertyne 


fourteen 


15 


fiftyne 


fifteen 


16 


sixtyne 


sixteen 


17 


seofontyne 


seventeen 


18 


eahtatyne 


eighteen 


19 


nigontyne 


nineteen 


20 


twentig 


twenty 


21 


an and twentig 


one and twenty 




etc. etc. 


etc. etc. 


30 


thrittig 


thirty 


40 


feowertig 


forty 


50 


fiftig 


fifty 


60 


sixtig 


sixty 


70 


hundseofontig 


seventy 


80 


hundeahtatig 


eighty 


90 


hundnio-ontio: 


ninety 


100 


hundteontig, or 


liund a hundred 


110 


hundenlafontig 


a hundred and ten 


120 


hundtwelftig 


a hundred and twenty 


200 


twahund 


two hundred 


1000 thusend 1 


a thousand 




etc. 


etc. 



. * The following are some of the variations of the Cardinal Num- 
bers. It is deemed unnecessary to give those of the Ordinals, as an 
idea may be formed of them from the others. 

an, see under § 121 ; twegen and thri/, under § 121, 1, and $ 121, 2 ; 
feower, feowr, fewer ; sir, syx, sex, sexo, seox, siex ; seofon, seofan, 



8u 





NUMBERS. 




2. Ordinal Numbers. These are, 


1st 


se forma 


the first 


2d 


se other 


the second 


3rd 


se thridda 


the third 


4th 


se feortha 


the fourth 


5th 


se fifta 


the fifth 


6th 


se sixta 


the sixth 


7th 


se seofotha 


the seventh 


8th 


se eahtotha 


the eighth 


9th 


se nigotha 


the ninth 


10th 


se teotha 


the tenth 


11th 


se endlyfta 


the eleventh 


12th 


se twelfta 


the twelfth 


13th 


se thrytteotha 


the thirteenth 


14th 


se feowerteotha 


the fourteenth 


15th 


se fif teotha 


the fifteenth 


16th 


se sixteotha 


the sixteenth 


17th 


se seofonteotha 


the seventeenth 


18th 


se eahtateotha 


the eighteenth 


19th 


se nigonteotha 


the nineteenth 


20th 


se twentugotha 


the twentieth 


21st 


se an and twentugotha the one and twentieth. 




etc. etc. 


etc. etc. 


30th 


se tlirittigotha 


the thirtieth 


40th 


se feowertigotha 


the fortieth 


50th 


se fiftigotha 


the fiftieth 


60th 


se sixteogotha 


the sixtieth 



seofen, siofon, siofun, syfan, syfon, seofa ; eahta, ehta, aehta, ahta , 
nigon, nygon, nigan, nigen, nyga ; tyn, ten, tin ; endlufon, endleofun, 
aendlefen ; feowertyne, feowertine, feowertene ; fiftyne, fiftene, fiften ; 
sixtyne, sixtene ; seofontyne, seofontine ; nigontyne, nigontine, nigan- 
tine, nygantyne ; twentig, twenta, tweontig ; thrittig, thritig ; feower- 
tig, feowrtig ; sixtig, sixteg, sextig. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



70th se 
SOth se 
90th se 
100th se 
110th se 
120th se 

§ 121. 

and thr^ 



hundseofontigotha the seventieth 
hundeahtatigotha the eightieth 
hundnigontigotha the ninetieth 
hundteontigotha the hundredth 
hundendlufontigotha the hundred and tenth 
hundtwelftigotha the hundred and twentieth. 

An one is declined like god. 2 Twegen, twa two 
, threo three are declined in the following manner 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 



1. 

m. 

twegen 
tweg-ra 
twam 



twegen two. 



f. n. 

twa 



twam 
twa 3 



two. 

of two. 

to, for, with two. 

two. 



2. thrjr three. 



f. n. 

threo 



threo-ra 

thrym 

threo 4 



three. 

of three. 

to, for, with three, 

three. 



N. thrf 

G. threo-ra 

D. thrym 

A. thr^ 

§ 122. Feower four makes the Genitive feowera ; and 
we sometimes find fifa, sixa, seofona as the same case of 
fif five, six six, seofon seven. When used absolutely, tyn 
ten makes the Nominative and Accusative tyne and the 
Dative tynum : also twelf twelve, the Nominative twelfe, 
the Genitive twelfa, and the Dative twelfum. 



2 When standing definitely as a pronoun, it signifies alone. 

3 In the declension of twegen, we have twa, tii, tua, tuu, tw'2h or 
twig, tufg, twy' either in the Nom. and Ace. or in both; twegra, twe'- 
gera, twega ; twam, twae'm. 

4 In thry' likewise: thry', thrf, thrfg, thry'ae, threj thred, thridj 
thrym, thrim. 



&WBERS. 

§ 123. Twentig and the other numeral* \r -tig are thus 
inflected : 

m f. n. 

N. twentig twenty. 

G. twentig-ra of twenty. 

D. twentig-um to, for, with twenty. 

A. twentig twenty. 

§ 124. All these numerals in tig are used in the Nomi- 
native and Accusative, both as nouns which govern the 
Genitive and as adjectives which agree with nouns in the 
same case. 

§ 125. Hund and hundred 5 a hundred and thusend a 
thousand are treated in their inflection as nouns of the first 
declension. 

§ 126. All the Ordinal Numbers with the exception of 
se other the second are declined definitely : as, se forma 
seo, thaet forme the first. 

§ 127. Healf 5 half when used as a numeral is generally 
placed after the cardinal or ordinal which agrees with it. 
and which it diminishes by the one half of a unit : as, six 
healf marc five marcs and a half; thridde healf two and a 
half. 

§ 12S. Distributives are made by a repetition of the Car 
dinal numbers : as, six and six six and six, by sixes. 

§ 129. The Anglo-Saxons also expressed numbers by the 
different positions of the letters I, V, X, L, C, and M. 7 

5 Hundred is, properly speaking, a noun with the signification of 
centuria in Latin : it not only means the number hwidred, but it is 
applied to a division of a cownty : as, innan his hundrede within his 
himdred. It is compounded of hund and red, a word supposed to 
mean a stroke or line, " it being the ancient custom to count or num- 
ber by strokes or lines." 

6 Healf, half. 

7 It would seem that the letters I, X, E, CD, were first assumed to 
represent the decimal numbers 1,10, 100, 1000, and then by bisecting 

83 



ETYMOLOGY. 
ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE NUMERALS. 

§ 130. 1. The Cardinals an, twegen, thry, feower, fif, 
six, seofon, eahta, nigon, are evidently simple. 

2. Tyn appears to be a contracted form from twa two 
and hand a hand ; signifying both the hands or ten fingers, 
the common way of counting in the early stage of man- 
kind, as always with children. 

3. Endlufon and twelf are compounded from an and 
twegen, twa, and laefan to leave. 8 Threottyne, feower- 
tyne, fiftyne, sixtyne, seofontyne, eahtatyne, nigontyne, 
owe their origin to tyn and the simple numbers an, twe- 
gen, etc. 

4. Twentig is compounded of twa, tyn and the termina- 
tion -ig, and signifies two tens or twice two hands added to- 
gether. The same formation obtains in all the numerals 
which end in -tig. It is true that from seventy to a hun- 
dred and twenty inclusive, hund is prefixed, but more as a 
refinement than anything else, since it is sometimes omit- 
ted when the same word, used to express a hundred, goes 
before. In ancient times hund signified only ten, but its 
meaning was afterwards extended to ten times ten. 

5. The tens are increased by placing the units first with 
and and, but after hund a hundred the smaller number is 
set last, while the noun is repeated. When the smaller 
number is placed before hund, it denotes multiplication. 
Thus, an and twentig one and twenty ; an hund wintra and 
thrittig wintra one hundred and thirty years. 

6. Thusend is thought to be nothing but the more com- 



the three last were given V ( U) 5, L 50, and D 500. After that, 
nothing more was wanting in order to complete the system than to 
place the different letters in additive and subtractive positions. 
8 See Appendix C. 

84 



VERES. 



plete Moeso-Gothic tigos hund or taihuns hund ten times a 
hundred. 

7. Ordinals are formed from the Cardinal numbers, as 
six six, se sixta, seo, t&aet sixte the sixth. 



CHAPTER VII. 

VERBS. 

§ 131. Verbs in Anglo-Saxon may be divided into two 
orders, the Simple and the Complex j 1 and also subdivided 
into Conjugations and Classes. They are likewise Mixed 
and Anomalous. 

CONJUGATIONS. 

§ 132. There are three Conjugations, the 1st belonging 
to the Simple order of verbs, and the 2d and 3d to the 
Complex order. Under each of these are arranged three 
Classes. 

Moods. 

§ 133. These are four, the Indicative, Subjunctive, Im- 
perative and Infinitive. 

TENSES. 

§ 134. The Tenses are only two, the Indefinite and 
the Perfect ; the former referring either to the present 
time, or to a future period. 

1 Complex verbs receive their appellation from the complex mo- 
difications which the vowels of their roots undergo in forming the 
Perfect tense. 

65 8 



ETYMOLOGY. 



NUMBERS. 



§ 135. There are two Numbers, the Singular and the 
Plural. 



PERSONS 



§ 136. Each number contains three Persons, the 1st, 



2d, and 3d. 



PARTICIPLES. 



§ 137. There are two Participles, the Indefinite and 
the Perfect. 



GERUND. 

§ 138. The Gerund, termed by some a Second Infinitive, 
is always preceded by the preposition, to. 2 With the verb 
of existence, it has a passive signification, or expresses 
what ought to be done. 3 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

1. The Simple Order. 
§ 139. This Order is distinguished by having the Per- 
fect tense of two or more syllables with the termination 
-ode, -ede, -de, or -te, 4 while the Perfect Participle ends 



in -od, -ed, -d or -t : as, 




1st Conjugation. 




Class. Inf. Perf. 

1 luf-ian to love luf-ode loved 


Perf. Part. 

luf-od loved. 


2 baern-an to burn baern-de burned 


baern-ed burned. 


3 syll-an to give seal-de gave 


seald given. 



2 This particle is never found before the Infinitive in Anglo-Saxon 
as in English. 

3 The Gerund combines the nature of the noun with that of fhe 
verb, just as the Participle unites the properties of the adjective and 
of the verb. 

4 The difference between the endings -de and -te, and -d ^nd -t, 
depends altogether upon the hardness or softness of the preceding 
consonant. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

§ 140. Inflection of the verb lufian to love, 1st Class. 

Indicative Mood. 

Indefinite Tense. 

Singular. 

1 ic luf-ige / love. 

2 thii luf-ast thou lovest. 

3 he, heo, hit luf-ath he, she, it loveth or loves. 

Plural. 

1 we luf-iath 5 . we love. 

2 ge luf-iath ye or you love. 

3 hi luf-iath they love. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 

1 ic luf-ode I loved. 

2 thii luf-odest thou lovedst. 

3 he, heo, hit luf-ode he, she, it loved. 

Plural 

1 we luf-odon we loved. 

2 ge luf-odon ye or you loved. 

3 hi luf-odon they loved. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Indefinite Tense. 

Singular. 

1 ic luf-ige / love. 

2 thu luf-ige thou love. 

3 he, heo, hit luf-ige he, she, it Iovp.. 

5 Lvfiath, lufige. The form of the first person singular is used for 
the plural whenever the pronoun follows the verb, as in asking a 
question : and in accordance with this rule, the second person plu- 
ral of the Imperative, which is always like the plural of the Indefi- 
nite Ind., assumes the same form; but never when the Nominative 
is omitted. 

87 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Plural 

1 we luf-ion we love. 

2 ge luf-ion ye or you love. 

3 hi luf-ion they love. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 

1 ic luf-ode I loved. 

2 thu luf-ode thou loved. 

3 he, heo, hit luf-ode he, she, it loved. 

Plural. 

1 we luf-odon we loved. 

2 ge luf-odon ye or you loved, 

3 hi luf-odon they loved 

Imperative Mood. 
Singular. 
2 luf-a thu love thou. 

Plural. 
2 luf-iath (ge) love ye or you. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Indefinite Tense. 
luf-ian to love. 
Participles. 
Indef. luf-igende loving. 
Per/, luf-od loved. 

Gerund. 
Indef. to luf-igenne to love, about to love ; of, in, and 
to loving and to be loved. 

Lufodon, lufedon ; — lufion, lufian ; — lufian, iufigean; — lufigende, 
lufiende ; — lufod, gelufod, -ad -ed ; — lufigenne, lufienne. 

For the insertion of the g in such cases as hinge, lufigenne, see 
again § 1, Note 7, with § 408. 

A conjunction such as gif if, thaet that, theah though, accompanies 
the Subjunctive mood. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



§ 141. Inflection of the verb baernan to bum, 2d Class. 
Indicative Mood. 
Indefinite Tense. 
Singular. 
. I burn, 
thou burnest. 
he j she j it burneth or burns. 

Plural, 
we burn, 
ye or you burn, 
thsy burn 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 
ic baern-de I burned. 

thu baern-dest thou burnedst. 



1 ic baern-e 

2 thu baern-st 

3 he, heo, hit baem-th 

1 we baern-ath 6 

2 ge baern-ath 

3 hi baern-ath 



he, heo, hit baern-de 



1 we baern-don 

2 ge baern-don 

3 hi baern-don 



ic baern-e 

thu baern-e 

he, heo, hit baern-e 



we baern-on 
ge baern-on 
3 hi baern-on 

69 



he, she, it burned. 
Plural. 

we burned,. 

ye or you burned, 

they burned. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Indefinite Tense. 
Singular. 
I burn, 
thou burn, 
he, she, it burn. 
Plural, 
we burn, 
ye or you bum. 
they burn. 
8* 



ETYMOLOGY. 







Verfect Tense. 






Singular. 


1 


tc naerp-de 


I burned. 


2 %hu baern-de 


thou burned. 


3 


he, heo, hit baern-de he, she, it burned. 






Plural. 


1 


we baern-don 


we burned. 


2 


ge baern-don 


ye or you burned 


3 hi baern-don 


they burned. 






Imperative Mood. 






Singular. 




2 baern thii 


burn thou. 
Plural. 




2 baern-ath 


(ge) burn ye or you 

Infinitive Mood. 
Indefinite Tense. 




baern-an to burn. 






Participles. 




Indef. 


baern-ende burning. 




Perf. 


baern-ed burned. 



Gerund. 
Indef. to baern-enne to burn, about to burn ; of, in, and 
to burning and to be burned. 



6 — Baemath, baerne : —baerndon, berenedon : — baernon, baernan 
— baernan, forbaernan, onbaernan, 
so 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

§ 142. Inflection of the verb syllan to give, 3d Class. 

Indicative Mood. 

Indefinite Tense. 

Singular. 

1 ic syll-e J give. 

2 thii syll-st thou givest. 

3 he, heo, hit syl-th 7 he, she, it giveth or gives. 

Plural. 

1 we syll-ath we give. 

2 ge syll-ath ye or you give. 

3 hi syll-ath they give. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 

1 ic seal-de I gave. 

2 thii seal-dest thou gavest. 

3 he, heo, hit seal-de he, she, it gave. 

Plural. 

1 we seal-don we gave. 

2 ge seal-don ye or you gave. 

3 hi seal-don they gave. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Indefinite Tense. 

Singular. 

1 ic syll-e I give. 

2 thii syll-e thou give. 

3 he, heo, hit syll-e he, she, it give. 

7 Sylth, silth :— syllaih, sylle:— sealde, gesealde: — syllan, sellan, selan, 
gesyllan :— seald, gesealdi—syllanne, syllenne. 

We will here observe that a-, be-, for-, ge-, to-, and in some few 
instances, on-, are indifferently and interchangeably prefixed to verbs, 
especially to peifect tenses and perfect participles ; ge- to the per- 
fect tense is universal. Some verbs are not met with in their sim- 
ple state, but only occur with these prefixes. Very often indeed 
they affect the signification of the simple word. 
91 






CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

Plural. 

1 we syll-on ™ e ff ive - 

2 gesyll-on ye or you give. 

3 hi syll-on ^ ^' 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 

1 ic seal-de I 9 ave - 

2 thd seal-dest thou gavest. 

3 he, heo, hit seal-de he, she, it gave. 

Plural. 

1 we seal-don «* 9 ave - 

2 ge seal-don ye ov you gave. 

3 hi seal-don they gave. 

Imperative Mood. 
Singular. 
2 syl-e thu ffive thou. 

Plural. 

2 syll-ath (ge) give ye or y<w. 

Infinitive Mood. 

Indefinite Tense. 

syll-an to give. 

Participles. 

Znrfe/. syll-ende #wm#. 

Per/, seal-d ^verc. 

"it is evident that i^th^arliirsiage of the language, the distinctive 
forces of the foregoing prefixes, naturally inherent in them, invariably 
obtained. At a later period, ge- especially, began to be used more for 
euphony than for anything else, while the peculiar intensities of the 
others in many cases gradually disappeared. But see again § 75, 
Note 33, and also Anal. Anglo-Sax., Gloss., sub vocibus. 

92 



conjugation of verbs. 

Gerund. 
Indef. to syll-anne to give, about to give ; of, in, and 
to giving, and to be given. 

§ 143. Remarks on the 1st Conjugation. 

1. The 1st Class contains all verbs in -ian. 

2. The 2d Class comprises those which are derived from 
nouns, adjectives and other verbs. 

3. The 3d Class includes those which have the Perfect 
tense of more than one syllable like the rest, and not belong- 
ing to the two other classes. 

2. The Complex Order. 

§ 144. This order makes the Perfect tense a monosyl- 



iauic nibiA a ^""g^ 


V^JL VUIVU) OUU L1XC' A til 


C/VU IJCAlM. WVi VXKj 


in -en or -n : as, 


2d Conjugation. 




1 et-an et-( 


5 a'et et-en 


to eat. 


2 la'et-an la'el 


-e let la'et-en 


to let. 


3 far-an far- 


e for far- en 


to go. 


§ 145. Inflection of the verbs etan to eat, 


la'etan to let, 


and faran to go. 


Indicative Mood. 

Indefinite Tense. 

Singular. 




1 ic et-e 


la%t-e 


far-e. 


2 thu yt-st 


la'el -st 


faer-st. 


3 he, heo, hit yt 8 


la'et 


faerth. 



8 yt, ytt: — etath, ete : — la' talk. la'ete: — farath, fare: — la'etan; on- 
la'etan to continue :— faran, fearran, gefaran, gefaeran ; afaran, afearr- 
ian to go out of; on-faran to go on ; to-faran to go to : — eten, ge- 
eten : — far en, ge-faren. 







ETYMOLOGY. 








Plural. 




1 we et-ath 




la'et-ath 


far-ath. 


2 ge et-ath 




la'et-ath 


far-ath. 


3 hi et-ath 




la'et-ath 
Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 


far-ath. 


1 ic a'et 




let 


for. 


2 thu a'et-e 




let-e 


for-e. 


3 he, heo, hit a'et 


let 


for. 






Plural. 




1 we a'et- on 




let-on 


for- on. 


2 ge a'et- on 




let-on 


for-on. 


3 hi a'et- on 




let-on 
Subjunctive Mood: 
Indefinite Tense. 
Singular. 


for-on. 


1 ic et-e 




la'et-e 


far-e. 


2 thu et-e 




la'et-e 


far-e. 


3 lie, heo, hit 


et-e 


la'et-e 
Plural. 


far-e. 


1 we et-on 




la'et-on 


far-on. 


2 ge et-on 




la'et-on 


far-on. 


3 hi et-on 




la'et-on 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 


far-on. 


1 ic a'et-e 




let-e 


for-e. 


2 thu a'et-e 




let-e 


for-e. 


3 he, heo, hit a'et- 


e let-e 


for-e. 






Plural. 




1 we a'et- on 




let-on 


for-on. 


2 ge a'et-on 




let- on 


for-on. 


3 hi a'et-on 




let- on 


for-on. 



conjugation of veres, 

Imperative Mood. 

Singular. 

2 et la'et far t.hii. 

Plural 

2 et-ath laet-ath far-ath (ge). 

Infinitive Mood. 

Indefinite Tense. 

et-an laet-an far-an. 

Participles. 

Indef. et-ende la'et-ende far-ende. 

Perf et-en la'et-en far-en. 

Gerund. 

Indef. to et-anne la'et-anne far-anne 

§ 146. Remarks on the 2d Conjugation. 

1. The 1st Class contains those verbs which have a long 
e or i before a single characteristic. 

2. The 2d Class includes those which have a short 6 
and short eo in the Perfect. 

3. The 3d Class comprises those which form the Per- 
fect in 6. 

3d Conjugation. 



Class Inf. 

1 byrn-an 


Indef. 

byrn-e 


Perf. 

barn 


Perf. Part. 

burn-en 


to burn. 


2 writ-an 


wr/t-e 


wrat 


writ-en 


to write. 


3 sceot-an 


sceot-e 


sceat 


scot-en 


to shoot. 



§ 147. Inflection of the verbs byrnan to burn, writan to 



'write, and sceotan to shoot. 







ETYMOLOGY. 








Indicative Mood. 








Indefinite Tense. 








Singular, 




1 ic 




byrn-e writ-e 


sceot-e 


2 thii 




byrn-st writ-st 


sc^t-st 


3 he, heo, 


hit 


byrn-th writ 
Plural 


sc^t. 


1 we 




byrn-ath 8 writ-ath 


sceot-ath 


2 ge 




byrn-ath writ-ath 


sceot-ath 


3 hi 




byrn-ath writ-ath 
Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 


sceot-ath. 


1 ic 




barn wrat 


sceat 


2 thii 




burn-e writ-e 


scut-e 


3 he, heo, 


hit 


barn wrat 
Plural. 


sceat. 


1 we 




burn-on writ-on 


scut-on 


2 ge 




burn-on writ-on 


scut-on 


3 hi 




burn-on writ-on 
Subjunctive Mood. 
Indefinite Tense. 
Singular. 


scut-on 


1 ic 




byrn-e writ-e 


sceot-e 


2 tljLU 




byrn-e writ-e 


sceot-e 


3 he, heo, 


hit 


byrn-e writ-e 
Plural 


sceot-e 


1 we 




byrn-on writ-on 


sceot-on 


2 ge 




byrn-on writ-on 


sceot-on 


3 hi 




byrn-on writ-on 


sceot-on. 



* Byrnatn, byrne ; — ivritath, write ; — sceotath, sceote ; — wrat, ge- 
wra.t; — byrncm, gebyrnan, forbyrnan; — urUan, gewritan: awritan to 

96 



1 ic 


burn-e 


2 thu 


burn-e 


3 he, heo, hit 


burn-e 


1 we 


burn-on 


2 ge 


burn -on 


3 hi 


burn-on 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

Perfect Tense, 
Singular. 

writ-e scut-e 

writ-e scut-e 

writ-e scut-e. 

Plural. 

writ-on scut-on 

writ-on scut-on 

writ-on scut-on. 

Imperative Mood. 
Singular. 
2 byrn writ sceot thu. 

Plural. 

2 byrn-ath wri't-ath sceot-ath (ge). 

Infinitive Mood. 

Indefinite Tense. 

byrn-an writ-an sceot-an. 

Participles. 

Indef. byrn-ende writ-ende sceot-ende. 

Per/, burn-en writ-en sceot-en. 

Gerund. 

Indef. to byrn-anne writ-anne sceot-anne. 

§ 148. Remarks on the 3d Conjugation. 
1. The 1st Class contains those verbs which have a 
short i (y) before mb, mm, mp, nc, nd, ng, nn, rn ; a short 
a (o) in the Perfect, and u in the Perfect Participle : also 
those which have a short e or eo before gd ; ht ; Id, If, lg f 
11, Ip, It ; re, rf, rg, rn, rp, rs ; sc, st ; ea (ae) short in the 
Perfect, and o in the Perfect Participle. 

write out; — sceotan, scotan, besceotan; — bumen, gebumen; — writen, 
gewriten. 

97 9 



ETYMOLOGY. 

2. The 2d Class comprises those which have a hard i 
(t) in the Indefinite, and a in the Perfect. 

3. The 3d Class bears a near resemblance to the 2d. 

FORMATION OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF 
THE VERB. 

§ 149. Imperative Mood. — This part of the Verb is 
formed from the Infinitive by rejecting the termination 
-an : but if the final consonant of the root be double, one 
of the consonants is also thrown away and e put in its 
place. Verbs in -ian make the Imperative in -a. Thus, 
baern-an, baern ; syll-an, syll-e ; luf-ian, luf-a. 

§ 150. Indefinite Participle. — This Participle is formed 
by rejecting the Infinitive ending -an, and adding the ter- 
mination -ende : as, baern-an, baern-ende. 

§ 151. Gerund. — The Gerund appears to be the Dative 
case of the Infinitive declined as a noun, the a of the ter- 
mination -an being sometimes changed into e : as, writ-an, 
writ-anne ; baern-an, baern-enne. 

§ 152. The Perfect tense and Perfect Participle, and, 
to some extent, the Persons, are formed differently in the 
Simple and in the Complex Verbs. 

1. Simple Verbs. 

§ 153. Perfect Tense. — The Perfect tense rejects the 
-an or -ian, and adds -ode, -ede, or -de to the root : as, 
luf-ian, luf-ode ; segl-ian, segl-ode or segl-ede. The form 
-de, which is a contracted one, belongs mostly to verbs 
having f?,/, g, /, m, n, r, s, w, and th before the Infinitive 
termination : as, baern-an, baern-de ; alys-an, alys-de. 

§ 154. Verbs which end in -dan or -tan preceded by a 
consonant, do not take an additional d or t ; and those 
having either c or cc before the termination -an, change 

98 



FORMATION OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE VERB. 

the c or cc into h whenever t follows : as, send-an, send-e ; 
pliht-an, pliht-e ; recc-an, reh-te. 

§ 155. In many cases the letters t, p, c, h, x, and s after 
another consonant, and preceding the Infinitive -an, not 
only contract the Perfect tense, but also change the d into 
t : as, dypp-an, dypp-ede, dyp-de, dyp-te. 

§ 156. Perfect Participle — The Perfect Participle is 
formed by changing the -an or -ian of the Infinitive into 
-ed or -od. It is also frequently contracted like the Per- 
fect tense when /, p, c, ft, a:, or s 'preceded by another 
consonant, terminates the root of the verb, while d passes 
into t. Sometimes the root itself is changed and the e of 
the -ed rejected. Thus, baern-an, baern-ed ; luf-ian, luf- 
od ; dypp-an, dypp-ed, dyppd, dyppt and dypt ; syll-an, 
seald. 

§ 157. The syllable ge- is not uncommonly prefixed to 
the Perfect Participle in both orders of verbs : as, lufod, 
gelufod ; faren, gefaren. 

§ 158. Persons. — The First person singular of the Indef. 
Indie, is formed from the Infinitive by changing the termi- 
nation into -e, the Second, by changing it into -st, -ast, or 
-est, and the Third, into -th, -ath, or -eth : as, baern-an, 
baern-e, baern-st, baern-th, etc. All the persons of the 
Plural end in -ath, but -an with a vowel before it makes 
-iath : as, baern-an, we, ge, hi baern-ath ; luf-ian, we, ge, 
hi luf-iath. 

§ 159. Verbs in -dan and -san have -t in the third per- 
son singular instead of the aspirate -th, while d before -an 
also makes the second person in -tst, though -dst is some- 
times found. Verbs in -than and -tan do not receive th 
additional in the third person. Thus, fed-an, fet ; raes-an, 
ra'est ; send-an, sentst ; cyth-an, cyth ; hat-an, haet. 

§ 160. Whenever a verb has a double consonant one is 
always rejected in forming the persons in case another fol- 



ETYMOLOGY 



lows. And where it would make too harsh a sound to add 
st or th to the bare root, an e is usually inserted. Thus, 
spill-an, spil-st, spil-th ; nemn-an, nemn-est, nemn-eth. 

§ 161. In the Perfect tense the second person singular 
adds st to the first, and the third is like the first. The 
Plural rejects the final e of the first person singular, and 
puts on in its place. 

§ 162. In the Indef. Sub. all the persons of the Sin- 
gular are like the first person of the same tense Indicative,, 
while the Plural adds -on, -an, or -ion, -ian, as the case 
may be, to' the root of the verb. 

§ 163. The Perfect tense is like the Perfect Indicative, 
except that it does not add st to the first person singular 
to form the second. 

2. Complex Verbs. 

§ 164. Perfect Tense and Perfect Participle. — The Per- 
fect tense is formed by rejecting the Infinitive termination 
with various changes of the radical vowel : the Perfect 
Participle usually modifies the root in the same way, and 
converts its verbal ending into -en. 

§ 165. Verbs, the roots of which present a monosyllabic 
form with a or ea after the rejection of the Infinitive end- 
ing, frequently change the a into o, and sometimes into eo, 
and the ea generally into eo to form the Perfect tense, 
while in forming the Perfect Participle no other change 
takes place than that of the termination : as, stand-an, stod, 
gestand-en ; beat-an, beot, beat-en. 

§ 166. Verbs having e or eo before //, //", lg y It, rf, rg, 
rp, and the like, make ea, and in some cases ae, in the 
Perfect tense, and o in the Perfect Participle : as, delf-an 
dealf, dolf-en. 

§ 167. Verbs having i before gn, Tin, ng, nc, nd, ?nb y 7)v\ 
etc., often change this vowel into a in the Perfect, tens 



FORMATION OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE VERB. 

and into u in the Perfect Participle : as, sinc-an, sane, 
sunc-en. The same change of vowel takes place when i 
occurs before a single consonant : as, nim-an, nam, nura- 
en ; but i becomes d in the tense, and i in the participle : 
as, sh't-an, slat, slit-en. 

§ 168. Those Verbs which have either u or eo in the 
Infinitive, make the Perfect tense in ed and the Perfect 
Participle in o : as, cluf-an, cleaf, clof-en ; hreow-an, 
hreaw, hrow-en. 

§ 169. Persons. — The Personal terminations are usually 
like those in verbs of the Simple Order ; but while in the 
Indef. Ind. the persons of the Plural retain the vowel of 
the first person singular, the same is not unfrequently 
changed in the second and third. Thus, a becomes ae, 
and occasionally e or y ; e, ea, and w, are converted into y 
or i ; 6 into e ; and u or eo, into # : as, Ic bac-e, thu 
baec-st, he, &c, baec-th, we, ge, hi bac-ath ; Ic stand-e, 
thu stent-st, he, &c, stent, we, ge, hi stand-ath ; Ic et-e, 
thu yt-st, he, &c, yt, we, ge, hi et-ath ; Ic sceot-e, thu 
scyt-st, he, &c, scyt, we, ge, hi sceot-ath. 

§ 170. The termination of the third person singular in 
verbs ending in -dan, -san, -tan, etc., follows the same 
rules as those given in § 159 : as, ri'd-an, ic rid-e, he, &c, 
n't or rid-eth ; et-an, ic et-e, he, &c, yt, etc. 

§ 171. In the Perf. Ind. the second person singular 
commonly ends in -e, and gives form to all the persons of 
the same number in the Perf. Sub. : as, Ic stod, thu 
stod-e ; ic, thu, he, &c, stod-e. 

§ 172. Verbs taking either u or o in the stem of the 
Perfect Participle, in most cases have u in that of the 
second person singular and all the persons of the Plural in 
the Perfect tense, while the third person singular is like 
the first : as, crung-en, &c, ic crang, thu crung-e, he, &c, 
crang, we, ge, hi crung-on. 
ioi 9* 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 173. Verbs having i in the radical part of the Inf., 
and i in the Perfect Participle with a in the first and third 
persons singular of the Perfect tense, make i in the second, 
and in all the persons of the Plural : as, aris-an, aris-en, 
ic, he, &c, aras, thu aris-e, we, ge, hi aris-on 

§ 174. Contracted verbs of one syllable having the Per- 
, feet Participle in -gen, terminate the first and third per- 
sons singular of the Perfect tense, and the second person 
singular of the Imperative mood, in -h, besides always in- 
serting this letter before -st, and -th : as thwean, thweg- 
en, ic, he, &c, thwoh, thweah thu, thii thw^h-st, he, 
&c s , thwih-th. Those which terminate the root of the 
Inf. in g, in general follow the same rule, converting the 
g into h : as, stig-an, tliu stih-st, ic, he, &c, stah. 

Auxiliary Verbs. 

§ 175. There are, properly speaking, no verbs in Anglo- 
Saxon which can lay claim to this peculiar character, as 
those which have been regarded as such, do not convey 
the idea of time, especially future time, except seemingly 
and in rare instances, but rather of possession; affirmation, 
or existence ; volition, obligation, command, and necessity. 
They are, habban; wesan, beon, and weorthan ; willan, 
sceal, magan, cunnan, and mot. 

§ 176. Conjugation of the verb habban to have (1 Con. 
2 CI. Irr. 9 ) 

9 This verb, strictly speaking, unites two classes of the 1st Con- 
jugation, the 1st and 2d, from the infinitives habban and hafian, 
different formations from the same root (Note 10). The same 
may be said of lybban and leofian to live ; hyegan and hogian to * 
think; i'yligan or fyligean and folgian to follow ; and some others. 
Such are usually considered irregular. 

There is also a class of verbs which evidently form their different 
parts from two or more distinct roots. These will appear in the 
sequel. 

103 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Indicative Mood. 

Indefinite Tense. 

Singular. 

1 ic habb-e 10 I have. 

2 thu haef-st thou hast. 

3 he, heo, hit haef-th he, she, it hath or has 

Plural. 

1 we habb-ath we have. 

2 ge habb-ath ye or you have. 

3 hi habb-ath they have. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 

1 ic haef-de J had. 

2 thu haef-dest thou hadst. 

3 he, heo, hit haef-de he, she, it had. 

Plural. 

1 we haef-don ive had. 

2 ge haef-don ye or you had. 

3 hi haef-don they had. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Indefinite Tense. 
Singular. 

1 ic habb-e I have. 

2 thu habb-e thou have. 

3 he, heo, hit habb-e he, she, it have. 

Plural. 

1 we habb-on we have. 

2 ge habb-on ye or you have. 

3 hi habb-on they have. 

10 Habbe, haebbe : — haefst, hafast : — haefth, hafath : — habbath, hafi- 
ath : — habbe, hafie : — habbe, haebbe : — habbon, habban : — habban, haeb- 
V; *ji : — habbende, haebbende : — haefd, haefed : — habbenne, haebbenne. 

103 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 

1 ic haef-de I had. 

2 thu haef-de thou had. 

3 he, heo, hit haef-de he, she, it had. 

Plural. 

1 we haef-don we had. 

2 ge haef-don ye or you had. 

3 hi haef-don they had. 

Imperative Mood. 
Singular. 
2 haf-a thu have thou. 

Plural. 
2 habb-ath (ge) have ye or you. 
Infinitive Mood. 
Indefinite Tense. 
habb-an to have. 

Participles. 
Indef. habb-e.nde having. 

Per/, haef-d had. 

Gerund. 
Indef. to habb-enne to have, about to have ; of, in, and 

to having, and to be had. 
§ 177. Conjugation of the verbs wesan and beon to be 
(2 Con. 2 CI. Irr.), and weorthan to become, be (3 Con. 
1 CI. Irr.) 

Indicative Mood. 

Indefinite Tense. 
Singular. 

1 ic eom 11 beo weorth-e 

2 thu eart by-st wyr-st 

3 he, heo, hit ys by-th wyrth. 

11 Eom, earn, am : — eart, earth : — ys, is : — synd, sind, synt, syndon 
104 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 









Plural. 




1 


we synd 




beo-th 


weorth-ath 


2 


ge synd 




beo-th 


weorth-ath 


3 


hi synd 
1 ic wafes 




beo-th 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. 


weorth-ath. 
wearth 




2 thu wafer-e 




wurd-e 




3 he, heo, 


hit 


wa'es 

Plural 


wearth. 




1 we wafei 


-on 




wurd-on 




2 ge wa'er- 


■on 




wurd-on 




3 hi wa'er- on 




wurd-on. 






Si 


jbjunctive Mood 
Indefinite Tense. 
Singular. 




1 


ic sy 




beo 


weorth-e 


2 


thu sf 




beo 


weorth-e 


3 


he, heo, hit s 


f 


beo 
Plural 


weorth-e. 


1 


we syn 




beon 


weorth-on 


2 


ge sy-n 




beon 


weorth-on 


3 


hi sfn 




beon 


weorth-on. 



sindon : — wa'es, was : — wa'eron, wa'eren : — sy', si, sfg, seo : — sy'n, 
sin: — wesath, wese : — wesan, *wisa.n:—wesen, gewesen. 

Beo, bio, biom : — by'st, bist : — by'th, bith : — beoth, bioth, beo, bio : — 
beon, bion : — beonde, bionde : — beonne, bionne. 

Weorthe, wurthe, wyrthe : — wyrth, wirth, weorth, wecrthe-th, 
wyrtheth: — wcortkcdh, wurt'hath. wyrthath, weorthe, wurthe, wyr- 
the : — weorthe, weorth, weortheth, weordeth : — weorthan, wurthan, 
wyrthan ; — weorthende, wurthende, wyrthende : — wordm t geworden : — 
weorthanne, wnrthanne, wyrthanne. 

105 







ETYMOLOGY. 








Perfect Tense. 








Singular. 




1 


ic wa'er-e 




wurd-e 


2 


thu wa'er-e 




wurd-e 


3 


he, heo, hit 


wa'er-e 

Plural. 


wurd-e. 


1 


we wa'er-on 




wurd-on 


2 


ge wa'er-on 




wurd-on 


3 


hi wa'er-on 




wurd-on. 




Imperative Mood. 








Singular. 






2 wes 


beo 
Plural. 


weorth. 




2 wes-ath 


beo-th 


weorth-ath. 




L 


\ t finitive Mood. 




Indef. 


wes-an 


beo-n 
Participles. 


weorth-an. 


Indef. 


wes-ende 


beo-nde 


weorth-ende 


Per). 


wes-en 


Gerund. 


word-en. 


Indef. 


wes-anne 


beo-nne 


weorth-anne. 



§ 17S. Inflection of the verbs willan to will or be willing 
(1 Con. 3 CI. Irr.), and sceal shall, magan to be able, cun- 
nan to know, know how, and mot must (Anom). 
Indicative Mood. Indefinite Tense. 
Singular. 

1 ic wyll-e 12 sceal maeg can mot 

2 thu wyl-t sceal-t mih-t can-st mo-st 

3 he, &c, wyl-e sceal maes can mot. 



12 Wylle, wille : — wylt, wilt, wylst : — ivijle, wile : — wyllath, willath, 
wylle, wille : — wylle, wille : — loyllon, willon, wyllen, willen : — wyllan 



willan : — wyllende, willende. 

Sceal, sceol : — scealon, sceolan, scuJon : — scyle, scile 
Ian, scylen. 

106 



-scylon, scy- 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 



1 we 

2 ge 

3 hi 



Plural 

wyll-ath sceal-on mag-on cunn-on mot-on 

wyll-ath sceal-on mag-on cunn-on mot-on 

wyll-ath sceal-on mag-on cunn-on mot-on. 

Perfect. 

Singular. 

1 ic wol-de sceol-de mih-te cuth-e most-e 

2 thu wol-dest sceol-dest mih-test cuth-est most-est 

3 he, &c, wol-de sceol-de mih-te cuth-e most-e. 

Plural. 

1 we wol-don sceol-don mih-ton cuth-on most-on 

2 ge wol-don sceol-don mih-ton cuth-on most-on 

3 hi wol-don sceol-don mih-ton cuth-on most-on. 







Subjunctive Mood. 










Indefinite. 










Singular. 




1 ic 

2 tftii 

3 he, heo, 


hit 


wyll-e 
wyll-e 
wyll-e 


scyl-e 
scyl-e 
scyl-e 

Plural. 


mag-e 
mag-e 
mag-e. 


1 we 

2 ge 

3 hi 




wyll-on 
wyll-on 
wyll-on 


scyl-on 
scyl-on 
scyl-on 

Perfect. 
Singular. 


mag-on 
mag-on 
mag-on 


1 ic 

2 thu 

3 he, heo, 

107 


hit 


wol-de 
wol-de 
wol-de 


sceol-de 
sceol-de 
sceol-de 


mih-te 
mih-te 
mih-te. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 

1 ic wol-de sceol-de mih-te 

2 thu wol-de sceol-de mih-te 

3 he, heo, hit wol-de sceol-de mih-te. 

Plural. 

1 we wol-don sceol-don mih-ton 

2 ge wol-don sceol-don mih-ton 

3 hi wol-don sceol-don mih-ton. 

Imperative Mood. 
Singular. 
2 wyl-e thu. 
Plural. 
2 wyll-ath (ge). 
Infinitive Mood. 
Indef. wyll-an mag-an cunn-an. 

Participles. 
Indef. wyll-ende. 
Perf. ctith. 

COMPOUND TENSES. 

§ 179. Hence there can be, in strict terms, neither Com- 
pound Tenses, nor a Passive voice in Anglo-Saxon. Thus, 
in parsing forms like the following, Ic haebbe geset I have 
set ; ic maeg beon lufod I may he loved, the Part, geset 
agrees with the Pron. ic ; been is the Inf. governed by 
maeg, and lufod agrees with ic, as before. 

§ 180. A participial form of tense exists as in English : 
thus, ic eom baernende I am burning ; ic wa'es lufigende I 
was loving. 

Impersonal Verbs. 

§ 181. These are used only in the third person singular 
with the pronoun hit «7, either expressed or understood, 
while in other respects they are. like regular verbs : as, hit 
snivvth it snows ; me thuhte it seemed to me, or I thought. 

108 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 

§ 182. Man corresponding to one and they in English, 
often gives the verb an impersonal sense : as, man dyde 
one or they did, it was done. 

MIXED VERBS. 

§ 183. Verbs in Anglo-Saxon may be termed Mixed 
when they combine both Orders in a greater or less de- 
gree. A large number will be found to possess this cha- 
racter : as, adrencan ; 13 p. adrenc-te ; pp. adrenc-ed, 
adrunc-en to immerge, drown : bringan ; 14 p. broh-te, brang ; 
pp. gebroh-t, brung-en to bring, produce : acwencan ; 16 p. 
acwanc ; pp. acwenc-ed, acwin-en to quench, extinguish. 

ANOMALOUS VERBS. 

§ 183. Anomalous Verbs in Anglo-Saxon are such as 
cannot be reduced to either of the two Orders. Besides 
those already inflected, we have the following : 

§ 185. agan 16 to own, deliver, restore. 

Perf. Part, ag-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic ag-e he ah, we ag-on. 

— Perf. ic ah-te we ah-ton. 

§ 186. biian 17 to inhabit, to cultivate. 
Perf. Part, gebii-n 
Ind. Indef ic bii-e he bj'-th, 

— Perf. ic bii-de we bii-don. 

10 Adrencan ; adrincan, also to quench, p. adranc : — adrencte, 
adraenct: — -adre?iced, adruncen, adronct, adroncen, adronc. 

14 Bringan, brengan : — gebrbht, broht. 

15 Acwencan, acwinan, cwencan : — acwenced, acwinen, acwenct, 
acwent, acwan. 

16 A'gan, a'egan -.—agon, agan : — dhte, aht, a ehte. 

17 Buan, by 'an, btigian. 

109 10 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 187. dear dare, presume. 
Perf. Part. — 
Ind. Indef. ic dear, thu dear-st, 18 he dear, we durr-on. 

— Per/, icdors-te, thu dors-test, he dors-te, we dors-ton. 
Sub. Indef. ic durr-e. 

— - Perf. ic dors-te we dors-ton. 

§ 188. don to do, make, cause. 
Perf. Part, gedo-n. 
Ind. Indef. ic do, thu de-st, he de-th, we do-th. 

— Perf. ic dy-de, i9 thu dy-dest, he did, we dy-don. 
Imp. do thii. 

§ 189. dugan 20 to profit, care for, help, be good. 
Indef. Part, dug-ende. 
Ind. Indef. ic deah, thu dug-e, he deah, we dug-on. 

— Perf. ic doh-te, thu doh-test, we doh-ton. 

§ 190. gan 21 to go, walk, happen. 
Perf. Part. ga-n. 
Ind. Indef. ic ga, he gae-th, we ga-th. 

— Perf. ic eo-de we eo-don. 
Imp. ga thu. 

§ 191. geman 22 remember. 
Perf. Part. — 
Ind. Indef. ic geman, thu geman-st, we gemun-on. 

— Perf. ic gemun-de we gemun-don. 

18 Dearst, dune; — dorstc, durste. 

19 Dyde, dide : — dydest, didest : — did, dyde, dide ; — dydon, didon. 

20 Dugan, digian ; — dedh, deg, and from digian, dige, dyge ; — dohte, 
duhte. 

21 Gdn, gangan ;— gdn, gangen ;— gd, gauge ",r-gdth, ga'eth ;— gd t 
gang. 

22 Geman ; gemunan, munan to rememba; reflect, has p. gemunde, 
pp. gemunen, being a mixed verb. 

Geman, gemon ; — gemunon, gemunan. 
We also find, thu gemyst thou rememberedst. 
no 



NEGATIVE VERBS. 

§ 192. thearfan 23 to need, behoove. 
Indef. Part, thearf-ende. 
Ind. Indef. ic thearf, thii thearf-t, he thearf, we thurf-on. 

— Per}, ic thorf-te we thorf-ton. 

§ 193. witan to know, wot, p. wist. 
Indef. Part, wit-ende. 
Perf. — wit-en. 24 
Ind. Indef. ic wat, thii wa-st, he wat, we wat-on. 

— Perf. ic wis-te we wist-on. 
Imp. wit-e thu ; wit-ath, wit-e ge. 

§ 194. unnan 23 to grant, give, bestow. 
Perf. Part, geunn-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic an, tliu unn-e we unn-on. 

— Perf. ic uth-e we uth-on. 

§ 195. yrnan 26 to run. 
Perf. Part, urn-en. 
Ind. Indef. he yrn-th. 

— Perf. ic arn we urn-on. 

NEGATIVE VERBS. 

§ 196. The Anglo-Saxon has a few such forms, made 
by contracting the negative ne not with the verb. They 
are as follows : 

** Thearf an, thurfan, thj'rfan ; — thurfon, thyrfon, thyrfen. 
34 Witen, witod; — witan, witan; — wiste, wisste, wisse; — wiston^ 
wisston. 

25 Unnan: we have given this form in preference to the fuller one 
geunnan, though contrary to the principle which we have adopted, as 
will appear in other cases. 

Unnon, unnen, unnan ; — uthe, formed in the same way as cuthe, 
§ 178, from un-de. 

26 Yrnan : we have placed this among the anomalous verbs, al- 
though it is considered as differing from rinnan, rennan, reonnan, 
only by the transposition of the r. The form aernan, signifies to 
let run. 

ill 



ETYMOLOGY. 



§ 197. nabban 27 not to have. 
Perf. Part, nabban. 
Ind. Indef. icxiabb-e,thu naef-st, henaef-th, we nabb-ath. 



— 


Perf. 


ic naef-de 


we naef-don. 


Sub. 


Indef. 


ic naebb-e 


we naebb-on. 


— 


Perf. 


ic naef-de 


we naef-don 


Imp. 




naf-a thu 


nabb-ath fee). 






§198. 


neom 28 am not. 


Perf. 


Part. 


neom. 




Ind. 


Indef. 


ic neom 


he nis. 



— Perf. ic naes, thu na'er-e, he naes, we naer-on. 
Sub. — ic naer-e we naer-on. 

§ 199. nagan 29 not to own or possess. 
Perf Part, nagan. 
Ind. Indef. he nah we nag-on. 

— Perf. ic nah-te, t&ii nah-test we nah-ton. 
Sub. Indef ic nag-e. 

§ 200. nitan 30 not to knoiv. 
Indef Part, nit-ende. 
Ind. Indef ic nat, thu na-st, he nat, we nyt-on. 

— Perf ic nys-te, thu nys-test we nys-ton. 

§ 201. nyllan 31 to be unwilling, to kill. 
Perf Part, nyllan. 
Ind. Indef ic nell-e, thu nel-t, he nel-e, we nell-ath. 

— Perf ic nol-de we nol-don. 
Sub. Indef ic nell-e we nyll-on. 
Imp. nell-e thu. 

27 Nabban for ne habban ; — naeft, nafath ; — nabbe, for nabbath 
naebbe ; — naebbon, naebben. 

28 Neom for ne eom ; — nis, nys. 

29 Nagan for ne agan. 

30 Nitan forne witan : also nytan ; — nitende, netende ; — nyton, nyt- 
an, nulon ; — nyste, nysse ; — nystest, nysstest, nestest. 

31 Nyllan for ne wyllan: also nillan ; — nefe, nyle 5 — nellath, nyllatb 
— ndh, nylle ; — nyllon, nyllan. 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 
A LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 202. The following are the Complex Verbs in Anglo- 
Saxon in addition to those already given, with the inflec- 
tion and variation of the principal parts. 

§ 203. Ari'san 32 to arise , rise. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf Part, aris-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic ari's-e he ari's-t. 

— Perf. ic aras we aris-on. 

§ 204. aslidan 33 to slide. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, aslid-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic asli'd-e he aslid-eth. 

— Perf. ic aslad we aslid-on. 

§ 205. Bacan to bake. 
2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf Part, bac-exi. 
Ind. Indef. ic bac-e, thu baec-st, he baec-th. 

— Perf. ic boc we boc-on. 

§ 206. beatan to beat. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, beat-en. 34 

Ind. Indef. ic beat-e he beat-eth. 

— Perf. ic beot we beot-on. 

§ 207. belgan to be angry. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, bolg-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic bel-ge he bylg-th. 35 

— Perf. ic bealg we bulg-on. 

32 jirisan, rfsan. 

33 Aslidan, asly'dan, slidan. 

34 Indef. Part, beatende, beotiende ;— bedteth,bet \— beoton, (hi) baet- 
tan {they) beat down. , 

33 Bylgth, bilhth : also thu bilhst ; — bealg, bealh. 
in 10 * 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 208. belifan to remain. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 
Per}. Part, belif-en. 36 
Ind. Indef. ic beli'f-e he bel-ifth. 

— Per/, ic belaf we belif-on. 

§ 209. bellan to bellow, roar, bark. 

2 Con. 2 01. 
Perf. Part, bell-an. 

Ind. Indef. ic bell-e. 

— Perf. ic bell we bell-on. 

§ 210. belucan 37 to shut up, lock up. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, beloc-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic behic-e he betyc-th. 

— Perf. ic beleac we beluc-on. 

§ 211. beodan 38 to command, offer. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, bod-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic beod-e. 

— Perf. ic bead we bud-on. 

§ 212. beorgan to protect, avoid. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, borg-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic beorg-e. he byrg-th. 39 

— Perf. ic bearh we burg-on. 
Imp. beorh thu. 

36 Indef. Part. beliftende;-beldf, beleaf. 

37 Belucan, lucan 5 — belocen, belocyn, bilocen. 

38 Beddan, bedan, and bddian ; — bead, bad. 

39 Byrgth, birhth : also thu birlist ; — bearh, berh. 

in 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 213. beran 40 to bear, suffer, excel. 

2 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf Part, bor-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic ber-e he byr-th. 

— Perf. ic baer we baer-on. 

§ 214. berstan to burst, fail, fall. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, borst-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic berst-e he byrst. 

— Perf. ic baerst we burst-on. 

§ 215. bidan to stay, bide, expect. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, bid-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic bid-e he bi'd-eth. 41 

— Perf ic bad we bid-on. 

§ 216. biddan to bid, beg. 

2 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf Part, bed-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic bidd-e, tftu bit-st, he bit. 42 

— Perf ic baed we bafed-on. 

§ 217. bindan 43 to bind, pretend. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, bund-en. 

Ind. Indef ic bind-e, thu bind-st, he bint. 

— Perf. ic band we bund-on. 

40 Beran, beoran ; — boren, boran ; — byrth, bireth. : also thu birest 
for berist ; — ba'er, bea'r. 

41 Bideth, bit]— bad, bed. 

42 Bit, bitt, byt ; — ba'ed, ba'edt, by'd ; — ba'edon, beadon. 

43 Bindan, baendan ; — band, bend. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 218. bitan to bite. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 
Per/. Part, bit-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic bit-e he bit. 

— Perf. ic bat we bit-on. 

§ 219. blawan 44 to blow, breathe. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, blaw-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic blaw-e he bla'ew-th. 

— Perf. ic bleow we bleow-on 

§ 220. blican to shine, dazzle, amaze. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf Part, blic-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic blic-e he blic-th. 

— Perf. ic blac we blic-on. 

§ 221. blinnan to cease, rest, blin. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf Part, blunn-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic blinn-e he blin-th. 

— Perf. ic blan 45 we blunn-on. 

§ 222. bio tan to sacrifice. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, blot-en. 
Ind. Indef ic blot-e he blet. 

— Perf. ic bleot we bleot-on. 



44 " Blowan to blossom, is sometimes used in Saxon instead of 
blawan to blow; and thus, blowan was occasionally used by the 
Saxons as the present English, to blow. We say, to blow as the wind, 
and to blow or blossom as a flower" 

45 Blan, blon, blonn. 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 223. brecan 46 to break, vanquish, excite. 

2 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/". Part, broc-en. 

Ind. Indef ic brec-e thu bric-st. 

— Per/, ic braec we bra'ec-on. 

§ 224. bredan 47 to braid, seize, draw out, bend. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/. Part, brod-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic bred-e he brit. 

— Perf ic braed we brud-on. 

§ 225. breotan to bruise. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, brot-en. 
Ind. Indef ic breot-e. 

— Perf ic breat we brut-on. 

§ 226. breowan 4,8 to brew. 
3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf Part, brow-en. 
Ind. Indef ic breow-e. 

— Perf. ic breaw we bruw-on. 

§ 227. briican to use, eat, discharge. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, broc-en. 
Ind. Indef. thu bric-st, he brfc-th, we bruc-ath. 49 

— Perf ic breac we bruc-on. 

46 Brecan, breacan, bracan. 

47 Bredan, bregdan ; — broden, brogden, braegd, bregden ; — braed 
braegd ; — brudon, brugdon. 

48 Bredwan, briwan. 

49 Brucath, bry'cath. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Perf Part. 
Ind. Indef. 
— Per/. 
Imp. 



Per/. Part. 

Ind. Indef. 

— Per/. 



Perf. Part. 

Ind. Indef. 

- Perf. 



§ 228. bugan 50 to bow. 
3 Con. 3 CI. 
bog-en. 

ic bug-e he b^h-th. 

ic beah we bug-on. 

bug thii. 

§ 229. Ceorfan 51 to cut, carve. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
acorf-en. 

ic ceorf-e he cyrf-th. 

ic cearf we curf-on 

§ 230. ceosan to choose. 

3 Con. 3 CI. Irr. 
cor -en. 

ic ceos-e, thii, he c^-st. 52 
ic ceas, thii cur-e we cur-on. 

§ 231. ceowan to chew 
3 Con. 3 CI. 



Perf. Part. 

Ind. Indef. 

— Perf. 



gecow-en. 
ic ceow-e 
ic ceaw 



he c^w-th. 



we cuw-on. 



§ 232. ci'dan to chide. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, cid-en. 
Ind. Indef ic ci'd-e. 
— Perf. ic cad 



we cid-on. 53 



50 Bugan, begean, beogan, gebiigan; — bogen, bugen, bigen; — by'hth, 
buhth ; — bedh, beag ; — bug, biih. 

51 Ceorfan, cearfan. 

52 Cy'st, cist ; — ceds, ca'es. 

53 Cidon, cedun ; we also have p. cidde ; pp. cidd. 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS, 

§ 233. climban 54 to climb. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf. Part, clumb-en. 
Jnd. Indef. ic climb-e. 

— Perf. ic clamb we clumb-on. 

§ 234. cliifan to cleave. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 

Perf. Part, clof-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic cluf-e he ctyf-th. 55 

— Perf. ic cleaf we cluf-on. 

§ 235. cnawan to know. 

2 Con. 2. CI. 

Perf. Part, cnaw-en. 

Ind. Indef ic cnaw-e he cnafew-th. 

— Perf ic cneow we cneow-on 

§ 236. crawan to crow. ^ 

2 Con. 2 CI. 

Perf Part, craw-en. 

Ind. Indef ic craw-e . he crafew-th. 

— Perf ic creow we creow-on. 

§ 237. creopan 56 to creep. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 

Perf Part, crop-en. 

Ind. Indef. he crfp-th. 

— Perf. ic creap we crup-on. 

5 4 Climban, climan ; — clamb, clomm. 

55 Cly'fth, clyth. 

ss Cr'edpan, cry'pan. 
119 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 238. cringan 57 to die, submit ', cringe. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf Part. 

Ind. Indef. ic cring-e. 

— Perf. ic crang we crung-on. 

§ 239. cuman to come, happen. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 

Perf. Part, cum-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic cum-e he cym-th. 

— Perf. ic com 58 we com-on 

§ 240. cwaethan 59 to say, provoke by speaking, quoth. 
3 Con. 1 Ci. Irr. 

Perf. Part, cwaed-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic cweth-e, thu cwy-st, he cwy-th, 

— Perf ic cwaeth, thu cwafed-e 3 he cwafeth, we 

cwa'ed-on. 
Imp. cweth thu cwethath (ge). 

§ 241. cwelan 60 to die, be killed. 

2 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf. Part, cwel-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic cwel-e he cwil-th. 

— Perf. ic cwael we cwriel-on. 

« Cringan, crangau. 
68 Cdm, cwom, cum. 

59 Cwaethan, cwethan ; 

— Cwaeden, cwaede, cweden, gecweden; 
— Cwa'eth, cwa'ethe, cwa'cde/ 

60 Cwelan, acvelan. perhaps the more common form. 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 242. Delfan to dig, delve. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/. Part, delf-en. 
hid. Indef. ic delf-e he dylf-th. 

— Per/, ic dealf 61 we dulf-on. 

§ 243. deofan 62 to sink, dive. 

3 Con. 3 CI. : 

Per/. Part, dof-en 
hid. Indef. ic deof-e. 

— Per/, ic deaf we duf-on. 

§ 244. dragan to drag, draw. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Pari, drag-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic drag-e he draeg-th. 

— Perf. ic drog 63 we drog-on, 

§ 245. dreogan to do, work, drudge, bear, live. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, drog-en. 

Ind. Indef ic dreog-e, thii drfg-ast, 64 he drfh-th. 

— Perf. ic dreah we drug-on. 

§ 246. drepan to strike, 
2 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf Part, drep-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic drep-e. 

— Perf ic draep we drafep-on. 

6i Dealf, dielf, dalf, dulf. 
62 Deofan, dufian, diifan, gedufan. 
f 3 Drdg, drdh. 

64 Dry'gast, drfgast ; — dry'hth, drihth ; — drugon, drogan. 
121 il 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 247. drifan 65 to drive. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
J? erf. Part, drif-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic drif-e he drif-th. 

— Per/, ic draf we drif-on 

§ 248. drincan 66 to drink, be drunk. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/. Part, drunc-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic drinc-e he drinc-th. 

— Perf. ic dranc we drunc-on, 

§ 249. dwi'nan to pine, fade, dwindle. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, dwin-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic dwin-e he dwin-th. 

— Perf. ic dwan we dwin-on. 

§ 250. Fealdan to fold, wrap up. 
2 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, gefeald-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic feald-e he fylt. 

— Perf. ic feold we feold-on . 

§251. feallan to fall, fail. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, gefeall-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic feall-e he feal-th. 67 

— Perf ic feoll we feoll-on. 



es Drifan. dry'fan ; 
— Drdf, dra'ef. 
e 6 Drincan, drican ; 
— Druncen, druncn; 
— Drincth, dryncth. 
«? Fealt/i, fylth, fealh. 

122 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 252. feohtan to fight. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
jPerf. Part, foht-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic feoht-e he fyht. 68 

— Per/, ic feaht fuht-on. 

§ 253. findan to find, devise, determine. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/. Part, fund-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic find-e thu fin-st, lie find-eth. 

— Perf. ic fand, 69 thii fund-e we fund-on. 

§ 254. fleogan 70 to fly, flee. 
3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, flog-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic fleog-e he ftyh-th. 

— Perf. ic fleah we flug-on. 

§ 255. fleotan 71 to float. 
3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, flot-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic fleot-e he ftyt. 

— Perf. ic fleat we flut-on. 

§ 256. fli'tan to contend, 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, flit-en. 
Ind. Indef ic flit-e he flit. 

— Perf. ic flat We flit-on. 

«s Fyht, fiht. 
es Fand, fond, 
'o Fleogan, flidgan ; 

— Indef. Part, fledgende, flegende ;— fledge, Qeohe—fly'th, fly'cth.; 
Fledn, flidn to flee, escape, and actively to rout, has ic fled, — we 
fledth, flidth, fly'th in the Indef. 
71 Fledtan, fldtan : also, fldtian. Indef. Part, fldtigende. 
128 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 257. flowan 72 to flow. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part. 
Ind. Indef. ic flow-e he flew-th. 

— Perf. ic fleow we fleow-un. 

§ 258. fon 73 to take, undertake. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, fang-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic fo, thu feh-st, he fehth, we fo-th. 

— Perf. ic feng we feng-on. 
Imp. foh thu. 

§ 259. forhelan 74 to conceal, oppose. 
2Cod. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, forhol-en 
Ind. Indef. ic forhel-e he forhil-th. 

— Perf. ic forha'el we forhafel-on. 

§ 260. forleosan 75 to lose, let go. 
3 Con. 3 CI. Irr. 
Perf. Part, forlos-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic forleos-e he fortyst. 

— Perf ic forleas thu forlur-e we forlur-on. 

§ 261. forscrincan 76 to shrink, wither. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, forscrunc-en. 

Ind. Indef ic forscrinc-e he forscrinc-th. 

— Perf ic forscranc we forscrunc-on. 

72 Flowan, fledwan. 

73 Fdn, onfdn, afdn, gefdn :— fangen, gefangen, gefongen ;— -fd, foh. 
™ Forhelan; helan to cover. 

75 Forledsan, forldsan. 

76 Forscrincan, scrincaD. 

124 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 262. fxetan to fret, gnaw, devour. 

2 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/. Part, fret-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic fret-e he frit. 77 

— Perf. ic fra'et we fra'et-on 

§ 263. frinan 78 to ask. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, gefrun-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic frhi-e he frin-th. 

— Perf. ic fran we frun-on 

§ 264. Galan to enchant. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, gal-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic gal-e he gael-th. 

— Perf. ic gol we gol-on 

§ 265. gefeon to rejoice. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, gefag-en. 79 

Ind. Indef. ic gefeo. 

— Perf. ic gefeah. 

§ 266. gelimpan 80 to happen. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, gelump-en. 
Ind. Indef ic gelimp-e he gelimp-th. 

— Perf. ic gelamp we gelump.on, 



77 Frit, fryt \—fraeton, freton. 

78 Frinan ; the proper form of this verb, the form which more cor- 
rectly assigns it to the 3 Con. 1 CI. is fregnan ; p. fraegn, fraegin, 
fraeng; pp. frugnen. See also bredan, § 224. 

79 Gefagen, gefaegen. 

so Gelimpan, limpian ;— gelamp, gelomp. 
125 11* 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 267. gelpan 81 to boast, desire earnestly. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/. Part, golp-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic gelp-e he gylp-th. 

— Perf. ic gealp we gulp-on. 

§ 268. genesan to heal, be saved. 

2 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, genes-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic genes-e he genis-t. 

— Perf. ic gena'es we gena'es-on. 

§ 269. geotan to pour. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf Part, got-en. 

Ind. Indef ic geot-e he gft. 

— Perf. ic geat 82 we gut-on. 

§ 270. gesceatan to fall to. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf Part, gesceat-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic gesceat-e he gescft-t. 

— Perf ic gesceot we gesceot-on. 

§ 271. geserifan 83 to shrive, enjoin penance, assign. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, gescrif-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic gescri'f-e. 

— Perf. ic gescraf. 



w Gelpan, gilpan ; 
— Gylpth, gelpih. 
8* Gcdt, get. 
« Geserifan, sciifan ; 
—Gescrifen, gescryfen. 
12G 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 272. geseon 84 to see, behold. 
3 Cod. 3 CI. Irr. 
Perf. Part, gesaw-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic geseo, thu gesi'h-st, he gesih-th. 

— Perf. ic geseah, thii gesaw-e we gesaw-on 
Imp. geseoh thii. 

§ 273. getheon 85 to flourish, perfect, gain. 
3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, gelhog-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic getheo he geth^h-th. 

— Perf ic getheah. 

§ 274. gewitan 86 to depart, retreat, die. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, gewit-en. 
Ind. Indef ic gewit-e he gewi't. 

— Perf. ic gewat we gewit-on. 

§ 275. gifan 87 to give. 
2 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf Part, gif-en. 
Ind. Indef ic gif-e he gif-th. 

— Perf ic geaf we s;eaf-on. 

8 i Gesetin, gesidn, sedn ; 

— Gesawen, gesewen, gesaene, gesyne, gesegen, geseogen, geseo- 
wen. 

— Gesilith, gesy'hth; 

— Gesawe, gesaege; gesawon, gesewen, gesegen; 
— Geseoh, gesyh. 

85 Gethcdn, theon ; 

— Gethy'hth, gethfth. 

66 Gewitan, witan. 

87 Gifan, gyfan, geofian ; 

— Gedf gaef, gaf. 

127 



\ 



ETYMOLOGY. 



§ 276. gli'dan to glide , slip, 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, glid-en. 
Ind. Indef ic gli'd-e he gli'd-eth. 88 

— Perf. ic glad we glid-on. 

§ 277. gnagan 89 to gnaw. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, gnag-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic gnag-e he gnaeg-th. 

— Perf. ic gnoh we gnog-on. 

§ 278. gni'dan to rub. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf Part, gnid-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic gnid-e he gnit. 

— Perf. ic gnad we gnid-on. 

§ 279. grafan to dig, grave, carve. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, grav-en. 

Ind. Indef ic graf-e he graef-th. 

— Perf. ic grof we grof-on. 

§ 280. grindan 90 to grind. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf Part, grund-en. 

Ind. Indef ic grin-e he grin!. 

— Perf. ic grand we grund-on. 



83 Glidetk, gift. 

69 Gnagan, gnafan. 

90 Grindan, gryndan. 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 281. grfpan to seize, gripe. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Per/. Part, grip-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic gri'p-e he grip-th. 

— Per/, ic grap we grip-on. 

§ 2S2. growan to grow. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, grow-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic grow-e he grew-th. 

— Perf. ic greovv we greow-un. 

§ 283. gyldan 91 to pay, restore, yield, worship. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf. Part, gold -en. 

Ind. Indef. ic gyld-e he gylt. 

— Perf. ic geald we guld-on. 

§ 284. Hatan to call, be named, command. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, hat-en 
Ind. Indef. ic hat-e he ha'et. 

— Perf. ic het 92 we het-on. 

§ 285. healdan 93 to hold, regard, tend. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, heald-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic heald-e he hylt. 

— Perf. ic heold we heold-on. 



9i Chjldan, gildan, geldan. 

92 Het, heht. 

Notb. Hdtte appears to be used for the singular, and hcdton for the 
plural of the Perf. tense, when the verb signifies to be called. 

93 Healdan, haldan, heldan ; — hylt, healt, helt. 

129 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 286. heawan to hew, cut off, thrust. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 

Per/. Part, heaw-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic heavv-e he heaw-eth. 

— Per/, ic heow we heow-im. 

§ 287. hebban to heave, raise. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 

Perf. Part, haf-en. 94 

Ind. Indef. ic hebb-e thu hef-est, he hef-th. 

— Perf. ic hof we hof-on. 
Imp. hef-e thu. 

§ 288. helpan to help, preserve. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf. Part, holp-en 

Ind. Indef. ic help-e he hylp-th. 

— Perf. ic healp we hulp-on. 

§ 289. hladan 95 to load, lade or draw out. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 

Perf. Part, hlaed-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic hlad-e thu hlae-st, he hlaet. 

— Perf. ic hlod we hlod-on. 

§ 290. hleapan to leap. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 

Perf. Part, gehleap-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic hleap-e he hl^p-th. 

— Perf. ic hleop we hleop-on. 



» 4 Hafen, hefen, heafen r 
»5 Hladan, lodan. 
130 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 291. hleotan 96 to cast lots. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, hlot-en. 
Ind. lndef. ic hleot-e he hlf t. 

— Perf. ic hleat - we hlut-on. 

§ 292. hlihhan 97 to laugh, deride. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part. 

Ind. Indef. ic hlih-e he hlih-th, we hli-ath. 

— Perf ic hloh, thu hlog-e we hlog-on. 

§ 293. hlimman 98 to sound, resound. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf Part. 

Ind. Indef ic hlimm-e. 

— Perf. ic hlam we hlumm-on. 

§ 294. hlowan" to low. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, hlow-en. 

Ind. Indef ic hlow-e. 

— Perf ic hleow. 

§ 295. hnigan to bow, sink. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, hnig-en. 

Ind. Indef ic hnig-e he hnih-th. 

— Perf ic hnah we hnig-on. 

»« Hledtan, hldtan. 

97 Hlihhan, hlihan. hleahhan, hlehan, hlichan, 
ss Hlimman, hlemman. 
99 Hldwan, hlewan. 
131 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 296. hon 100 to hang, crucify. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 
Per/. Part, hang-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic ho he heh-th, we hoth. 

— JPerf. ic heng we heng-on. 
Imp. hoh thu. 

§ 297. hreosan 101 to rush, waver, fall 
3 Con. 3 CI. Irr. 
Per/. Part, hror-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic hreos-e he hr^s-t. 

— Perf ic hreas thu hrur-e we hrur-on. 
Sub. ic hryr-e. 

§ 29S. hre6wan to rue. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, hrow-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic hreow-e he hr^w-th. 

— Perf ic hreaw we hruw-on. 

§ 299. hrepan to cry, call out. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, hrep-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic hrep-e. 

— Perf ic hreop. 

§ 300. hrinan to touch. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, hrin-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic hn'n-e he hn'n-th. 

— Perf. ic hran we hrin-on. 



*» Hdn, hangan -—hd, hdh ;—hot/i, hohth- -heng, hong. 
101 Hreosan, redsan, redsian \—hreds ; also, hrysede 
132 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 301. hweorfan 102 to return. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/. Part, hworf-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic hweorf-e, thii hweorf-est, he hwyrf-th 

— Perf. ic hwearf hi hwurf-on. 

§ 302. Lean to blame, reprove. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part. 

Ind. Indef. ic lea' 03 he tyh-th. 

— Perf. ic loh we log-on. 

§ 303. leogan 104 to lie, deceive, lig. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, log-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic leah he tyh-th. 

— Perf. ic leag we lug-on. 

§ 304. lesan to gather, choose, lease. 
2 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, les-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic les-e. he lis-t. 

— Perf. ic la'es we la'es-on. 

§ 305. licgan 105 to lie, lie down, lie along. 
2 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, leg-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic licg-e thu li-st, he li-th. 

— Perf. ic la'eg, thu lag-e we lafeg-on. 



«02 Hweorfan, hwyrfan, hwerfan ; — hwyrfth, hwerfth ; — hwearf, 
hwaerf. 

•03 Led, leah. 

k>4 Leogan, iigan, ly'gnian ; — ledg, leah, ledh. 

«° 5 Licgan, licgean, lieggan, ligan, liggan, lyegan ; — lith, ligth, 
lihth ; — la'egon, lagon. 

133 12 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 306. h'han to lend. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Per/. Part. 
Ind. Indef. ic li'h-e. . 

— Per/, ic lah 

§ 307. h'than 106 to sail. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Per/. Part, lith-en 
Ind. Indef. ic li'th-e 

— Per/, ic lath, thu lid-e, we lith-on. 

§ 308. lutan 107 to bow, lout, incline, lurk. 
3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, lot-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic liit-e he \ft. 

— Perf ic leat we lut-on. 

§ 309. Melcan 108 to milk. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, molc-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic melc-e. 

— Perf ic mealc we mulc-on. 

§ 310. meltan 109 to melt. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, molt-en. 
Ind. Indef ic melt-e 

— Perf. ic mealt we mult-on. 



106 Lilhan, ledthan ; — lithen, geliden ; — lithon, lithan, lidon. 

107 Lutan, lutian, hliitan, ledtan ;— ledt, hleat. ' 

108 Melcan, melcian, meolcian. 

109 Melton, miltan, myltan. 

134 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 311. metan 110 to measure, mete. 

2 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, met-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic met-e he mit. 

— Perf. ic maet we maet-on. 

§ 312. migan 111 to make water, minge. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, mig-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic mig-e he mih-th 

— Perf. ic mah we mig-on. 

§ 313. mi'than to hide, dissemble. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, mith-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic mith-e. 

— Perf. ic math. 

§ 314. murnan to mourn, care for. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf Part, morn-en. 
Ind. Indef ic murn-e he myrn-th. 

— Perf. ic mearn we mum-on. 

§ 315. Neotan 113 to enjoy, 
3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, not-en. 
Ind. Indef ic ne6t-e. he nft. 

— Perf. ic neat we nut-on. 



110 Metan to paint, adorn, has the p. mette and the pp. metod. 

111 Migan, miegan, mengan ;—mige, mihe. 
113 Neotan, nidtan. 

135 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 316. niman 119 to take. 

2 Con. 1 CI. 

Per/. Part, num-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic nim-e he nim-th. 

— Per/, ic nam we nam-on. 

§ 317. Ondra'edan 11 * to dread. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 

Per/. Part, ondra'ed-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic ondraed-e thii ondra'et-st, he ondrafet. 

— Per/, ic ondred we ondred-on. 

§ 318. onginnan 115 to begin, attempt. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf. Part, ongunn-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic onginn-e he ongin-th. 

— Perf. ic ongan, thii ongunn-e we ongunn-on. 

§ 319. ongitan 118 to understand, get. 
2 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf Part, ongit-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic ongit-e he ongit. 

— Perf. ic ongeat we ongeat-on. 



118 Niman, neman, nioman ; — nam, nom. 

114 Ondra'edan, ondredan, ondreardan. 

115 Onginnan, ongynnan, beginnan ; — onginth, onginnath, ongin- 
neth ; — ongan, ongean. 

116 Ongitan, ongytan, ongetan, ongeotan, ongietan, getan, geatan, 
gytan ; — ongit, ongyt ; — ongeat, onget. 

136 



LISi "* C ^IPLEX VERBS. 

§ 320. onligan to grant, bestow. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 

Per/. Part. 

Ind. Indef. ic onh'g-e. 

— Per/, ic onlah 117 we onlig-on 

§ 321. Rennan 118 to run, flow. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/. Part. 
Ind. Indef. ic renn-e. 

— Per/, ic ran. 

§ 322. reocan 119 to reek. 
3 Con. 3 CI 
Per}. Part, roc-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic reoc-e he ryc-th. 

— Perf. ic reac we ruc-on. 

§ 323. ri'dan to move, ride. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, rid-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic rid-e he n't m 

— Perf. ic rad we rid-on. 

§ 324. rowan to row. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 

Perf Part, row-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic row-e he rew-th, we rew-oth. 

— Perf. ic reow we reow-un. 

117 Onldk, onleah, onlag; — onligon, onlehton from onligan, onle- 
gan to kindle, irritate. 

118 Rennan, reonan, rinnan. See also § 195. 

119 Reocan, recan, rcccan. 

120 Rit, ridetiu 

137 12* 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 325. Sawan to sow. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, saw-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic saw-e he sa'ew-th. 

— Perf. ic seow 121 we seow-un. 

§ 326. scacan 122 to shake, evade, shack. 
2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, scac-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic scac-e. 

— Perf. ic scoc we scoc-on. 

§ 327. scafan to shave. 
2 Con. 3 CI 
Perf. Part, scaf-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic scaf-e he scaef-th. 

— Perf. ic scof we scof-on. 

§ 328. sceadan 123 to divide, shade. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, scead-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic scead-e. 

— Perf. ic sceod we sceod-on. 

§ 329. sceran 124 to shear, shave, allot. 
2 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf Part, scor-en. 
Ind. Indef ic scer-e he scyr-th 

— Perf. ic sca'er we scafer-on. 



121 Seow, sew. 

122 Scacan, sceacan ; — scace, sceace y—scoc, scedc. 

123 Sceddan, scadan, sca'edan. 

124 Sceran, sciran, scirian, scyran, scieran ; — sca'er, scear;— vca'eron, 
scearon. 

138 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 330. scinan to shine. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, scin-en. 
Ind. Indef ic scin-e he sci'n-th. 125 

— Perf. ic scan we scin-on. 

§ 331. scrithan to wander. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part. 
Ind. Indef. ic scrith-e. 

— Perf ic scrath. 

§ 332. scufan 126 to shove. 
3 Con 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, scof-en. 
Ind. Indef ic sciif-e he scyf-th. 

— Perf ic sceaf we scuf-on. 

§ 333. scyppan 127 to create, form, shape. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf Part, sceap-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic scyp-e. 

— Perf ic scop we seop-on. 

§ 334. seothan to boil, seethe. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, sod- en. 

Ind. Indef ic seoth-e. 

— Perf ic seath, tftii sud-e we sud-on. 



125 Schitk, scineth; — scan, scean. 

126 Scufan, sceofan ; — scofen, scofan. 

m Scyppan, sceapan, sceppan, scipan ; — sceapen, scapen, gesceap- 
en ; — scop, sceop ; — scopon, sceopon. 

139 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 335. sigan to fall, fail. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Per/. Part, sig-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic si'g-e he sih-th. 

— Per/, ic sah. we sig-on. 

§ 336. sihan 128 to strain, sile, sie. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 

Per}. Part, sih-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic si'h-e. 

— Perf. ic sah we sih-on. 

§ 337. sincan 129 to sink. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, sunc-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic sinc-e. 

— Perf. ic sane we sunc-on. 

§ 338. s'mgan 180 to sing. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, sung-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic sing-e he sing-th. 

— Perf. ic sang we sung-on. 

§ 339. sittan to sit. 
2 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf Part, set-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic sitt, thu sit-st, he sitt, 131 we sitt-ath. 

— Perf ic sa'et we sa'et-on. 



128 Sihan ; also sedn ; i. ic sed; p. ic seah, we sugon. 

129 Sincan; besincan,very common. 

130 Singan, syngan ; — sangen, asungen ; — sang, sane, song. 
191 Sitt, sit. 

140 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 340. slapan 1312 to sleep. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 
Per/. Part, slap-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic slap-e he slafep-th. 

— Perf. ic slep we slep-on 

§ 341. slean 133 to slay. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, sleg-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic slea he styh-th. 

— Perf. ic sloh, thu slog-e we slog-on. 
Imp. sleh thu. 

§ 342. slifan to split. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf Part, slif-en. 

Ind. Indef ic slif-e he slif-th. 

— Perf. ic slaf we slif-on. 

§ 343. sh'tan to tear, slit. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, slit-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic slit-e he slit. 

— Perf ic sldt we slit-on. 

§ 344. smeocan 134 to smoke. 
3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf Part, smoc-en. 
Ind. Indef ic smeoc-e sm^c-th. 

— Perf ic smeac we smuc-on. 



132 Slapan, slepan. 

m Sledn, slan, slagan ; — slegen, sclawen ; — sled, sleah ; sly'Mh, 
slihth ; — sloh, slog ; — sleh, sly'h thu. 

134 Smeocan, smecan, smedgan, smdcian. 
141 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 345. smitan to smite. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 

Perf. Part, smit-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic smit-e he smi't. 

— Perf. ic smat we smit-on. 

§ 346. snithan to cut, slay. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 

Perf. Part, snid-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic snith-e thu snit-st. 

— Perf ic snath we snith-on. lw 

§ 347. spanan to allure, persuade. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 

Perf Part, gesponn-en. 

Ind. Indef ic span-e, thu spaen-st, he spaen-th. 

— Perf ic spon we spon-on. 

§ 348. spannan 138 to span, measure, join. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 

Perf. Part. 

Ind. Indef. ic spann-e. 

— Perf. ic spenn. 

§ 349. spinnan to spin. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf. Part, spun- en. 

Ind. Indef. ic spinn-e he spin-th. 

— Perf. ic span we spunn-on. 



135 Snithon, sneddun. 

m Spanan, spenan ; — spdn, spedn \-sp6non, speonon. 
142 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 350. spi'wan 137 to spit, vomit, spew. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, spiw-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic spiw-e he spiw-th. 

— Perf. ic spaw we spiw-on. 

§ 351. spowan to succeed. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 

Perf. Part. 

Ind. Indef. ic spow-e. 

— Perf. ic speow we speow-un. 

§ 352. sprecan 138 to speak. 

2 Con 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, gesprec-en. 

Ind. Indef ic sprec-e, thii spryc-st, he spric-th. 

— Perf. ic spra"ec we spra'ec-on. 

§ 353. springan 139 to spring, spread. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, sprung-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic spring-e he spring-th. 

— Perf. ic sprang we sprung-on. 

§ 354. spurnan to spurn. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, sporn-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic spurn-e he spyrn-th. 

— Perf. ic spearn we spurn-on. 



197 Spiwan, spedwian ; — spdw, spau. 

138 Sprecan, specan, spreocan ; — sprycst, spriest, spricest ; — spricth, 
sprycth, spreceth, spycth. 

139 Springan, spryngan, sprincan; — springth, spryngth; — sprang, 
spranc. 

143 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 355. standan 140 to stand. 
2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, gestand-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic stand-e, thii stent-st, he stent. 

— Perf. ic stod we stod-on. 

§ 356. stelan 141 to steal. 

2 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/. Part, stol-en. 

Ind. Indcf. ic stel-e he styl-th. 

— Per/, ic stael we stafel-on. 

§ 357. steorfan to die, starve. 

3 Con. 1 CI 
Perf. Part, storf-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic steorf-e he styrf-th. 

— Perf. ic staerf we sturf-on. 

§ 358. steppan to step. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, gestep-t. 

Ind. Indef. ic stepp-e he step-th. 

— Perf. ic stop we stop-on. 

§ 359. stigan 142 to ascend. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, stig-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic stig-e he stih-th. 

— Perf. ic stah we stig-on. 



140 Standan, stondan ; — stentst, standest ; — stent, stynt ; also stadath 
for standath. 

141 Stelan, staelan. 
J 43 St{gan, sty'gan. 

144 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 360. stincan 143 to smelly perfume, stink. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/ Part, stunc-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic stinc-e he stinc-th. 

— Perf. ic stanc we stunc-on, 

§ 361. stingan 14 * to sting. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, stung-en. 
Ind. Indef. he sting-th. 

— Perf. ic stang We stung-on. 

§ 362. siican 14& to suck. 
3 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, soc-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic siic-e he s^c-th. 

- — Perf. ic seac we sue-on. 

§ 363. swapan to sweep, brush. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, swap-en. 
Ind. Indef ic swap-e he swaep-th. x46 

— Perf ic sweop we sweop-on. 

§ 364. swefan to sleep, go to sleep. 
2 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, swef-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic swef-e he swef-th. 

— Perf ic swaef 147 we swaef-on. 



143 Stincan, stencan. 

144 Stingan, styngan, ofstingan. 

145 Stican, sy'can, sugan. 

146 Swa'epth, swapeth. 

147 Swakf, swaf. 

145 13 



■ 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 365. swelgan 1 " to swallow, 
3 Cod. 1 CI. 

Per/. Part, swolg-en. 

J«d Jnrfe/. ic swelg-e . he swylg-th. 

- Perf. icswealg ■ we swulg-on. 

§ 366. swellan to swell. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf. Part, swoll-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic swell-e he swil-th. 

- Perf. icsweoll we swull-on. 

§ 367. sweltan to die. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf. Part, swolt-en 160 
Ind. Indef. ic swelt-e he swylt. 

_ Perf. icswealt we swult-on. 

§ 368. sweorcan to dim, darken. 
3 Con. 3 CI. 

Perf Part, sworc-en. 
Ind. Indef ic sweorc-e. 

- Perf. icswearc we swurc-on. 

§ 369. swican 151 to deceive, wander, offend. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 

Perf. Part, swic-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic swi'c-e. 

- Perf. icswac we swic-on. 



148 Swelgan, swilgan, swylgan. 

149 Swylgth, swilgth, swelgth ;—swealg, swealh. 

150 Swollen, swulten ;—sweaU, sweolt. 
161 Swican ; beswican. to seduce. 

146 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 370. swifan to revoke. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 

Per/. Part, swif-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic swif-e. 

— Perf. ic swaf we swif-on. 

§ 371. swimman to swim. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf. Part. 

Ind. Indef. ic swimm-e he swim-th. 

— Perf. ic swamm we swumm-on. 

§ 372. swincan to toil. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf. Part, swunc-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic swinc-e. he swinc-th. 

— Perf. ic swanc we swunc-on." a 

§ 373. swindan to vanish. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf Part, swund-en. 
Ind. Indef ic swind-e he swint. 

— Perf. ic swand we swund-on. 

§ 374. swingan 153 to scourge, beat. 

3 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf. Part, swung-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic swing-e he swing-th. 

— Perf ic swang we swung-on. 



183 Swuncon, swuncgon. 
m Swingan, swyngan j— swang, swong. 
147 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 375. Tacan to take. 

2 Con. 3 CI. 

Per/. Part, tac-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic tac-e. 

— Per/, ic toe. 

§ 376. teon 164 to draw, tug, tow, create, accuse. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 

Perf. Part, tog-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic teo, thii tyh-st, he tyh-th, we teo-th. 

— Perf. ic teah, thii tug-e we tug-on. 
Sub. Indef. ic teo we teoh-th. 

— Perf. ic tug-e we tug-on. 
Imp. teo thii. 

§ 377. teran to tear. 

2 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf. Part, tor-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic ter-e, thu tyr-st, he tyr-th. 

— Perf. ic taer we tafer-on 

§ 378. tosh'pan 165 to dissolve. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 

Perf. Part, toslip-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic tosli'p-e he toslip-th. 

— Perf. ic toslap we toslip-on. 



m Teon. tidn, tedgan ; — teo, tedge ; — ty'ht/i, tihth ; — tedh, teh, tedde, 
tidde, trug ; —tuge, teddest ; — tugon, trugon ; — ted, sub. indef, tfhte ; — 
ted, imp. tedh. 

156 Toslipan ; slipan, slippan, to slip, relax . 

148 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS." 

§ 379. toslupan to loosen. 
3 Con. 3 CI. 
Per/. Part, toslop-en. 168 
Ind. Indef. ic toslup-e he toslf p-th 

— Per/, ic tosleap we toslup-on. 

§ 380. tredan to tread. 

2 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/. Part, tred-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic tred-e he trit. 

— Per/, ic tra'ed we traed-on. 

§ 381. rOieotan 16 * to howl 

3 Con. 3 CI. 
Per/. Part, thot-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic theot-e he thyt. 

— Perf. ic theat we tljut-on. 

§ 382. therscan 158 to thresh. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf Part, thorsc-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic thersc-e . he thyrsc-th. 

— Perf. ic thaersc we t.hursc-on 

§ 383. thrawan to throw , cast. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, thraw-en. 16 * 
Ind. Indef. ic thraw-e. 

— Perf. ic threow. 

166 Toslopen, slopen. 
151 Theotan, thiotan. 
168 T/ierscan, thaerscan. 
350 Thrdtoen, thra'ewen. 

149 13* 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 384. thringan to crowd, throng, rush on. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/. Part, gethrung-en, 
Ind. Indef. ic thring-e. 

— Perf. ic thrang we thrung-on 

§ 385. thwean to wash. 
2 Con. 3 CI. 
Per/. Part, thweg-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic thwea, 160 thu thw^h-st, he thwih-th. 

— Per/, ic thwoh we thwog-on. 
Imp. thweah. 

§ 386. Wacan to arise, awake. 
2 Con. 3 CI. 
Per}. Part, wac-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic wac-e he waec-th. 

— Per/, ic woe we w6c-on. 

§ 3S7. wacsan 181 to wash. 
2 Con. 3 CI. 
Per/. Part, gewaesc-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic wacs-e. 

— Perf. ic woes we wocs-on. 

§ 388. wadan to wade. 
2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf. Part, waed-en. 169 
Ind. Indef. ic wad-e he waet. 

— Perf. ic wod we wod-on. 

160 Thwea, thweah ; — thwitith, thwehth ; — thwoh, thwohg ; — thweah, 
thweh. 
" 161 Wacsan, waxan ; — woes, wax. 

162 Waeden, gewod. 

150 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 389. wealcan to roll, turn from side to side, walk. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 
Per/. Part. 
Ind. Indef. ic wealc-e. 

— Per/, ic weolc. 

§ 390. wealdan 161 to govern, wield. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 
Per/. Part, ge weald-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic weald, thu weald-est, he weald. 

— Perf ic weold we weold-on, 

§ 391. weallan 162 to boil, well. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, geweall-en. 
Ind. Indef he wyl-th. 

— Perf ic weoll. 

§ 392, weaxan 163 to grow, wax. 
2 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf Part, weax-en. 
Ind. Indef ic weax-e thu wyx-t, he wyx-th. 

— Perf. ic weox we weox-on. 

§ 393. wegan 164 to weigh, bear, carry. 
2 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf. Part, geweg-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic weg-e. 

— Perf ic wafeg we wa'eg-on. 

161 Wealdan, wyldan ; — wealdest. weltst, wyldst ; — weald, wealdeth, 
weak, welt, wylt. 

162 Weallan, welan ;— geweallen, wollen; — wylth, wealleth ;— -weoU, 
weol. 

163 Weaxan, wexan; — wyxth, weaxath, weahxath, wexth ;— weox, 
waex, weocs, weohse. 

W4 Wegan, waegan ; — waeg, wa'eh. 

151 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 394. weorpan 186 to throw. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Per/, fart, worp-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic weorp-e he wyrp-th. 

— Per/, ic wearp we wurp-on. 

§ 395. wepan to weep. 

2 Con. 2 CI. 
Per/. Part, wep-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic wep-e he wep-th. 

— Per/, ic weop we weop-on. 

§ 396. wind an to wind. 

3 Con. 1 01. 
Perf. Part, wund-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic wind-e he wint. 

— Perf ic wand we wund-on. 

§ 397. winnan to toil, win. 
3 Con. 1 CI. 
Perf Part, wunn-en. 
Ind. Indef ic winn-e he win-th. 

— Perf ic wan 166 we wunn-on. 

§ 398. withsacan 167 to deny, contradict, 
2 Con. 3 CI. 
Perf Part, withsac-en. 
Ind. Indef ic withsac-e he withsaec-th. 

— Perf ic withsoc we withsoc-on. 



165 Weorpan, wurpan, wyrpan, werpan. 

166 Wan, wann, won, woon. 

167 Withmcan, sacan. 

152 



LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. 

§ 399. wli'tan to look. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 

Per/. Part, wlit-en. • 

Ind. Indef. ic wli't-e he wlit. 

— Perf. ic wlat we wlit-on. 

§ 400. wrecan to revenge^ ivreak, defend. 

2 Con. 1 CI. 

Perf. Part, wrec-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic wrec-e he wric-th. 

— Perf. ic wra'ec we wrafec-on. 

§ 401. wreon 188 to cover. 

3 Con. 3 CI. 

Perf. Part, wrog-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic wreo he wrf h-th. 

— Perf. ic wreah we wrug-on. 

§ 402. wrigan to cover, rig. 

3 Con. 2 CI. 

Perf. Part, wrig-en. 

Bid. Indef. ic wri'g-e, thu wrih-st, he wrih-th. 169 

— Perf. ic wrah we wrig-on. 

§ 403. wringan to wring. 

3 Con. 1 CL 

Perf. Part, wrung-en. 

Ind. Indef. ic wring-e he wring-th. 

— Perf. ic wrang we wrung-on. 



163 Wreon, wrydn ; wreoh, wroh. 
J09 Wrihth, wngth. 
153 



ETYMOLOGY. 

§ 404. writhan to wreathe, writhe. 
3 Con. 2 CI. 
Perf. Part, writh-en. 
Ind. Indef. ic writh-e. 
— Perf. ic wrath we writh-on. 

IMPERFECT VERES. 

§ 405. Besides the Complex verbs which we have 
classed under their respective conjugations, there are 
others that present only the Infinitive, or the Infinitive 
with a single person or more. The same thing also occurs 
among verbs of the Simple Order. 

§ 406. We sometimes meet with words that are evi- 
dently participles, although no verbs to which they can be 
assigned, any longer exist. Such generally have ge pre- 
fixed to them when they terminate in -ed, -od, etc. 

ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF VERBS. 

§ 407. In some languages, as in our own, verbs are 
very often made by the simple employment of nouns with 
the appropriate signification. This, strictly speaking, 
is never the case in Anglo-Saxon, though all verbs in that 
language owe their origin to nouns. 

§ 408. Anglo-Saxon verbs are formed from nouns by 
the addition of the termination -an or -ian ; as, da'el apart, 
da'el-an to divide ; blot a sacrifice, bl6t-an to sacrifice; bod 
an edict, bod-ian to proclaim ; car care, car-ian to take 
heed, to be anxious. Such forms as beon, teon, fon, hon, 
are evidently contracted. 170 

170 The common opinion is that the terminations which go to form 
verbs from nouns in Anglo-Saxon, are expressive of giving or bettow- 
ing, possession and motion, being no other than the infinitives unnan i 

154 



ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF VERBS. 

Sometimes the termination -gean, -gan or -gian is used ; 
as, sceawi-gean, sceawi-gan to look : gethyld-gian to en- 
dure. Indeed, -ian appears to be no other than a softened 
form of these endings, and to have therefore the same 
original signification as -an. Thus we have sceawi-gean, 
sceawi-gan, sceawi-an : gethyld-gian, gethyld-ian ; forht- 
gean, forht-ian. The last verb has the adjective forht 
timid for its root. It not unfrequently happens that we 
find verbs formed in that way from adjectives, and also 
from words which have dropped out of the Anglo-Saxon 
vocabulary both as nouns and as adjectives, but which are 
to be met with in many instances as nouns in the cognate 
languages and dialects. It is very probable, however, that 
in all such cases the verb preserves the original noun in 
itself. 

§ 409. In a subsequent, stage verbs were compounded ; 
as, gethancmetan to deliberate, from gethanc mind, thought, 
and metan to measure, compare : ut-gan to go out, from lit 
out and gan to go. 

give or bestow, agan to have or possess, and g6n to go. An is generally 
considered the original form of the first verb, as unnan (anan ?) may 
be a double form like gangan. But are not agan and gan themselves 
made by means of a significant ending ? And did none of the verbs, 
into the composition of which these are said to enter, exist before they 
were formed 1 

There can be very little doubt that at one time the infinitives of all 
Anglo-Saxon verbs had the same forms as the corresponding nouns, 
and that afterwards one verb, and only one, was employed to distin- 
guish the former part of speech from the latter. We will also say 
that that verb was unnan, geunnan, ind. mdef. ic an, gean, signifying 
to give either to one's self or to another person, or thing. Thus, da'el-an 
to give a part, bldt-an to give a sacrifice, bod-ian to give an edict, car- 
ian to give care. Ba'eth-ian to wash, therefore, is not " ba'eth-gan to 
go to a bath," but ba'eth-gean to give a bath; and so throughout the 
vocabulary. See also Appendix D. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



ADVERBS. 



§ 410. The following^ are the most of the Adverbs in 
Anglo-Saxon not formed by the termination -lice : 

a always, ever, forever, aye. 

adiin down, downwards, a down. 

aefer ever, always. 

aeft after, again, behind, aft, afterwards. 

aeftewearde afterwards, after, behind. 

aeghwaer everywhere. 

aeghwanon everywhere, every way, on all sides. 

aeghwider on every side, every way. 

aegylde without amends. 

aelcor elsewhere, besides, otherwise. 

acne once. 

aer ere, before, sooner, earlier, first, heretofore, formerly, 
already, some time ago, lately, just now, till, until. 

aetgaedere together. 

aetsithestan at length, at last. 

aet-somne in a sum, at once, together, also, likewise. 

aforth always, continually, daily, still. 

ahwaer-gen everywhere, again, continually. 

ahwar somewhere, anywhere, in anywise. 

ahwonan from what place, whence, anywhere, somewhere. 

algeates always,altogether, all gates. 

aninga one by one, singly, at once, clearly, plainly, en- 
tirely, altogether, necessarily. 

anlapum/row? one part, at once, one by one, 

asundran asunder, apart, alone, privately. 

athanon from thence. 

156 



ADVERBS. 

awa always, 

aweg away, out. 

awoh awry, unjustly, wrongfully, badly. 

baeftan after, hereafter, afterwards. 

begeond beyond. 

benythan beneath, below, under. 

bufan above, before, beyond, moreover. 

diineweard downwards. 

eall-swa also, likewise. 

eallneg always. 

eallunga all along, altogether, entirely, quite, indeed, at 
all, assuredly, utterly, absolutely, excessively. 

ealmaest almost. 

eftsona soon after, again, eftsoons. 

endemes equally, likewise, in like manner, together. 

et-n^hstan for aet-nyhstan at last, lastly. 

feor far, at a distance. 

foran only. 

fore-weard forwards, before, first. 

forhwaega at least. 

forhwa^m wherefore, why. 

forne before, sooner. 

forth forth, thence, further, directly, forward. 

furthan also, too, even, indeed, further . 

further further. 

gea yea, yes. 

geara yore, formerly, for a long time; well, certainly, 
enough. 

gehende nigh, near at hand. 

gehwaer on every side, everywhere. 

gehwaetheres anywhere, on every side, every way, 

gehwanon on all sides, round about. 

gehwider whithersoever, anywhere, everywhere. 

gelice likewise, also, as. 

157 J 4 



ETYMOLOGY. 

gen again, moreover, besides, at length, as yet, hitherto. 
genog sufficiently, abundantly, enough. 
geo formerly, of old. 
geond yond, yonder, thither, beyond. 
gese yes, yea. 
gewelhwaer everywhere. 
gyt yet, hitherto, moreover, still, as yet. 
heona hence, from hence: — heonon-forth, henceforth. 
her here, now, at this time : — her-aefter hereafter. 
hider hither: — hider-ward hitherwards. 
hindan behind: — hindweard hindwards. 
hu how, in what manner. 
hugu, hugu-da'el a little, but a little, at least, 
hiimeta how, in what manner. 

huru, huru-thinga at least, at all events, yet, on y. indeed^ 
especially. 

hwaene somewhat, almost, a little, scarcely. 

hwaenne when. 

hwaer where. 

hwaet besides, in short, indeed, moreover. 

hwaethre whether. 

hwi why, wherefore, for what, indeed. 

hwider whither. 

hwon a little, a little while, rarely. 

hwona whence, where, 

innan within, inwardly: — innan-weard, inwards 

laes less. 

lange long, a long time. 

litlum with little, in pieces, by degrees. 

lungre immediately, forthwith. 

ma more ; rather, of more value ; afterwards. 

maelum in parts. 

maest most, more than. 

na no, not. 

158 



ADVERBS. 

naefre never. 
naes not. 

na-hwaer nowhere. 
na-hwanan never, nowhere. 
na-laes no less, not only. 
nalles not at all, not, no. 
ne not, nay, by no means. 
neah nigh, near, almost. 
nean nearly, almost. 

neothan beneath, downwards : — neothe-weard downwards. 
nese nay, not, no. 
nin not, no. 

nither down, downwards, below :-nither-weard downwards. 
no-hwit by no means, not. 
mi now, still, since, then. 
oft oft, often. 

on-an in one, once for all, continually. 
on-gean again. 
on-hinder backwards, behind. 
on-waeg away. 
oth until, even to, as far as. 
raethe soon, quickly, rath. 
samod also, likewise, together. 
side far, widely. 
sith late, lately, afterwards. 

siththan afterwards, after that, then, thenceforth, since, 
further, moreover, successively, in order. 
sona soon, immediately, forthwith, 
stille, still. 

sunder asunder, apart. 
swa thus, so. 

swithe very, much, very much, greatly. 
symle always, ever, constantly, continually. 
tela well, rightly. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

to too, also. 
tuwa twice. 

tha then, until, while, whilst, when, as. 
thaer there ; where, whither. 

thaes of this, for this, so far, so much so, thus, since, that, 
whereby, whereof 

thaet from that place, thence, only. 

thanon thence, whence. 

thonne then, immediately, when, since, whilst, afterwards* 

thriwa thrice, three times. 

thus thus, so. 

thyder thither : — thyder-weard thitherwards. 

ufan above, high, upwards, from above. 

up up, upward : — upweardes upwards. 

lit out, without, abroad: — lite-weard outwards. 

utan outwards, without, outwardly. 

wel well, much, enough, truly. 

with-ufan above, from above. 

with-utan without? 



1 The forms which the foregoing adverbs take are mostly these : 

d, aa; — adiin, adrine, of-dune; — aefer, aefre ; — aeft, eft, aefter, ae£ 
tan; — aeghivaer, aeghwar, -hwer, aghwar, ahwaer, oeghwaer; — 
aeghwanon, aeghwonon, -hwonene,-hwanun, -hwanum, -hwanan; — 
aeghwider, ah wider ; — aelcor, aelcra ; — aegylde, agild ; — a'ene, aeene ; 
— a'er, ar, er, a'eron, ear; — aet-gaedere, to-gaedere ; — aet-somne, to- 
somne ; — ahwar, ahwer, ahwor, awer, awyrn;— ahwonan, ahwonon; 
— asundran, asundron ; — dwa, a wo ; — aweg, anweg. 

baeftan, baefta ; — begeond, begeondan, beiundan ; — benythan, be 
neoth, beneothan, beniutha; — bufan, bufon, abufan, be-ufan; — 
duneweard, dune ward. 

eallneg, eallnig; — eall-swd, aelswa, alswa, ealswa ; — eallunga, eall- 
enga, eallinga, eallnunge ; — ealmaest, aelmaest ; — endemes, endemest, 
aendemes, aendemest. 

feor, feorr, feorran ;— -fore-weard, for-weard ;— -forhwdm, forhwoii, 
160 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

§ 411. Many Adverbs, especially those which end in -e 
and -lice, admit of comparison. In that case the final 
vowel of the positive is cut off, and the syllables -or and 

forhwi, -hwig -,—furthan, furthon, furthum ; — furthor, furthur, for- 
thor. 

ged, ga'e ; — gedra, geare, gearwe, gere ; — gehwaer, gehwar ; — gen, 
gena, gien, giena ; — genog, gendh, ndh ;— geS, ieo, id, iu; — gese, gyse, 
ise ;—gyt, git, giet, gieta, get, geta, geot, iette. 

heona, heonon, heonun, heonone, heonane, hinan ; — her, haer ; — 
Her-aefter, hyr-after : — hider, hyder, hieder, hither ; — hindan, hyndan ; 
— hu, hwit ; — hwaene, hwene ; — hwaenne, hwenne, hwonne, ahwaenne ; 
— liwaer, hwar ; — hwi, hwig, hwy'; — hwider, hwyder, hwaeder; — 
tiwon, hwonn ; — hwona, hwonan, behwon. 
innan, inn, inne. 

lange, longe ; — litlum, lytlum, litlun. 
md, ma'e, mare, mara, more. 

mZ, no; — naefre, nefre, nefor; — nd-hwaer, na-whar, na-war, na- 
wer, na-hwern, hwern, nedhwerno, nedwerno; — nd-hwanan, na- 
hwenan ; — nd-laes, na-les. nallas, nals ; — nalles, nallaes ; — neah, neahg, 
neh; — neothan, niothan, nythan, nithan, neothone; — nese, naese; — 
nilher, nyther, nyihor, nether; nither-weard, nither-ward, nither-wart, 
nither-werd, nither-weardes ; — no-hwit, nd-wiht, naht, ndht, ndcht. 

ongean, ongen, angean, agean, agen ; — on-waeg, on-weg ; — oth, 
oththe. 
raethe, rath, ratbe. 

samod, samad, somed, somod ;—sitMhan, syththan, siththen , seththan, 
sithen, siththa, syththon, sython ; — soma, suna, besone ; — stille, stylle ; 
— sunder, sun dor, svnder, syndor ; — switke, swythe ; — symle, simle, 
symble, simble, symbel, aelsymle, semle. 

tela, tael, teald, teala ; — tuwa. tuua; — thd, thage; — thaer, thar, ther, 
there, thaera, thara; — thanon, thanone, thanonne, thanun, thanan, 
thonan, thonon, thona ; — thonne, thaenne, thaen, thanne, thon; — 
thriwa, thrywa, thriga ; — thus, thuss; — thyder, thider, thaeder, thy ther; 
~—thyder-weard, thider-weard, thider- weardes. 
ufan, ufa, ufane, ufene, ufenan, ufon ; — up, upp, uppe ; — lit, ute. 
wel, well ; — with-utan, with-uten, with-uton. 
161 14# 



ETYMOLOGY. 

-ost are added for the comparative and superlative ; as, 
raeth-e soon, rath-or a sooner , rath-ost soonest; riht-lice 
justly, rihtlic-or more justly, rihtlic-ost most justly. 

§ 412. Some are irregular in forming the comparative 
and superlative degrees ; as wel, well, bet 8 better, betst 
best ; yfele badly, wyrs 4 worse, wyrrest worst. 



CHAPTER IX. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

§ 413. Prepositions in Anglo-Saxon govern different 
cases, and some of them two or more. They govern, 1. 
The Dative : 2. The Accusative : 3. The Genitive or 
Dative : and, 5. The Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

1. The Prepositions which govern the Dative are: 
Aefter 1 after, for, on account of, according to, through, over. 

efter. 
A'er ere, before. 
Aet at, to, next, with, against, in ; of, from. 

aett. 
Baeftan after, behind; without 

"beftan. 

aeftan. 

be-aeftan. 



2 rathor. rathur. 

3 bet, bett, abet. 

4 wyrs, waerra, waersa. 

1 We have thought it better, in giving the different forms of the 
Prepositions, to deviate from our common rule in placing such by 
themselves. 

162 



PREPOSITIONS. 

Be 8 by, near to, to, at, in, upon, about, with ; of, from, about, 
bi. touching, concerning ; for, because of, after, ac- 

big. cording to ; beside, out of 

bii. 
Beheonan on this side, close by. 

behionan. 
Benorthan to the north of 
Betwynan between, among. 

betweonan. 

betweonum. 

betwinan. 
Bin nan within. 

binnon. 

be-innan. 
Bufan. 

bufon above. 
Butan without, except. 

buton. 

biitun. 
Gehende, nigh. 
Mith with. 
Neah near, nigh 
Onforan before 
Oninnan ivithin 
Onufan above, upon. 

on-ufon. 

on-uppan. 

on-uppon. 



2 Some make a distinction between be and bi, but they both evi- 
dently have the same origin, and are used indiscriminately by 
writers. 
163 



ETYMOLOGY. 

To eacan besides. 
T6-emnes along. 
Toforan before. 

to-foren. 

to-foron. 

to-for. 
Toweard towards. 

to werd. 

toward. 

t6weardes. 

towardes. 
Unfeor nigh, near. 

un-feorr. 
With-northan to the north of. 

2. Those governing the Accusative are : 
Abiitan about, around, round about. 

abuton. 

onbutan. 

onbiiton. 
Begeond beyond. 

begeondan. 

beiundan. 
Behindan behind. 
Geond through, over, as far as, after, beyond 

geonda. 

eond. 
Mil among, at, mid, in. 
Ongean against, opposite, opposite to, towards. 

ongen. 

angean. 

agen. 
Siththan after, since. 

siththon. 

164 



PREPOSITIONS. 

Thurh through, by. 
With-aeftan behind, after. 
With-foran before. 
With-geondan about, throughout. 
With-innan within. 
With-iitan without. 
Ymb round, about. 

ymbe. 
Ymb-utan round about, without, beyond, except. 

ymbe-iitan. 

emb-utan. 

3. Those which govern the Genitive or Dative are * 
Of of, from, out of, concerning. 

af. 
To to, towards, for, under, from. 
Tomiddes in the middle, in the midst, among. 

4. Those governing the Dative or Accusative are : 
Aetforan close before, close by, before, at. 

beforan. 
befeore. 
Betwuh betwixt, among, 
betuh. 
betwy. 
betwih. 
betwyh 
betweoh. 
betweohs. 
betux. 
betweox. 
betwux. 
betwuxt. 
betwyx. 
betwixt. 

165 



ETYMOLOGY. 

For for, on account of, because of, according to. 
Gemang among. 

gemong. 

amang. 

onmang. 

ongemang. 

ongemong. 
Innan in, into, within. 

innon. 
Into into, in. 
Mid with, by means of, among. 

myd. 
Ofer over, above, upon, beside, beyond. 

ouer. 
On in, into, with, among, on, upon. 

in. 

an. 

o, oo. 
Oth to, unto, till. 
Togeanes towards, to, against, to meet. 

togenes. 
Uppan upon ; beyond, after, against, from. 

uppon. 
Utan without, beyond. 

liton. 

5. Those which govern the Genitive, Dative or Ac- 
cusative are : 
Andlang along, by the side of; through, during. 

andlong. 

ondlong. 

anlongne. 

onlongne. 

lang. 

16G 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

Fram from. 

fra. 

from. 
With against, opposite ; near, about, by, before, by the side 
of, along ; towards, with, for, instead of, through. 

§ 414. A Preposition is sometimes separated from the 
word which it governs, and in that case it is placed before 
the verb in the sentence. Several of the compound pre- 
positions are also elegantly divided by the nouns or pro- 
nouns depending upon them. 

§ 415. Some Prepositions are of an inseparable nature, 
and much used in the composition of Anglo-Saxon words. 
These will be found among the Prefixes given under § 75. 



CHAPTER X. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

§ 416. Conjunctions in Anglo-Saxon are either single 
words or phrases. The principal are contained in the fol- 
lowing list. 

ac but, whether. 

and and. 

andhwaether notwithstanding, but yet. 

a-the, a-thf therefore, so far that, so much. 

butan but, unless, except. 

eac also, likewise, and, moreover. 

eornostlice therefore, but. 

fortha because. 

fortham for this reason that, on this account that, be- 
cause, for that cause, for, therefore. 

167 



ETYMOLOGY, 



forthi therefore, wherefore, for, because. 

ge and, also : ge— ge, aeghwaether ge — ge, aegther ge 
— ge both — and, as well — as so — as. 

gif if when, though. 

hwaet moreover, but, wherefore, because. 

hwaethre whether, nevertheless, yet, but, if: hwaether, 
the — the whether — or. 

hwi wherefore, indeed. 

laes-hwon, the laes, the laes the, th^ laes, th^ laes 
the, las the lest, lest that. 

naes na, naes ne neither. 

nathor neither, nor : nathor ne — ne neither — nor. 

ne neither, nor : nene, neither. 

nemne but, except, unless. 

nymthe except, save, unless. 

ono if: ono hwaet but : ono nu if now : ono gif but if. 

oththe or, either : oththe — oththe either — or. 

other-twega or other-thara either of the two, often in the 
first clause for oththe. 

sam whether : sam — sam whether — or. 

set therefore, on that account. 

sothlice but, wherefore, therefore. 

swa, swa swa as, so as, as if; swa same, swa some so, 
also ; swa same swa the same as, as, even as ; same ylce 
swa in such wise as, so as ; eall swa also ; swa eac so as, 
also ; swa theah yet, but for all that, nevertheless, however : 
swa — swa, swa — swa swa so — as, that, swa wel swa so 
well as; swa thaet so that. 

swilce as if, as it were, so that, also, moreover, seeing. 

thaet that ; — 16 thon thaet, in order that. 

the th-an, whether, either, or, whether — or. 

theah though, although, yet, still, however; theah the 
although ; tljeah hwaethere yet, nevertheless, moreover^ but 
yet, but. 

168 



INTERJECTIONS. 

thonne therefore, wherefore, but, than; gif thonne if 
indeed. 

thy for, because, therefore : th^ — thy, thf — the there- 
fore, because; also, for thy — for thy, for thf — the, for 
thy — for tham, for thi — for tham the, for tfram the — for 
thy therefore— because. 

wenre except, saving, but. 

with thon thaet, so that, provided that. 

witodlice 1 but, for, therefore, wherefore. 



CHAPTER XI. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

§ 417. The following are the most of the Anglo-Saxon 
Interjections : 

afaestla O certainly ! O assuredly ! 



1 The various forms of the preceding among others are these : 

ac, oc ; — and, aende, ende, ond ; — a the, d thy' : more properly ever 
the. 

butan, buton, butun., biite. 

edc, a'ec, ec. 

farth&m, forthan, forthdn, fortham the, forthan the ;—forth{ } forthy', 
forthig, forthy' the, forth! thonne. 

gif, gy f - 

hivt, hwig, hwy'. 

ndthor ,nather, nathaer, nawther, nauther ; — nemne, nimne, nymne; 
— nymthe, nimthe, nemthe. 

oththe, athor, auther, ather, oththon, outher. 

sam, som ; — swa, swa'e, sua'e ; — swilce, swylce, sole. 

thaet, that, thaette contracted from thaet the ; — thedh, then, th<5th, 

tha'eh ; — thonne, thanne. 

witodlice, witedlice, witudlice. 
169 15 



ETYMOLOGY. 

eala O ! alas ! Oh ! eala eala very well ! eala gif Oh 
if; I wish : eala thaet Oh that ! eala hii Oh how. 

efne lo ! behold ! truly ! alefne behold all ! 

eow wo ! alas ! 

heno behold ! 

hig 01 hi la hi alas! 

hiii ha ! 

hui ho ! 

la O ! Oh ! io ! behold ! 

taeg tush ! pish ! 

wa woe ! alas ! \va la Oh ! O if! wa la wa well-a-way ! 
well-a-day ! alas ! 

wei wo ! alas ! 

wella wel well well ! wel la 1 well alas ! 

ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE INDECLIN- 
ABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

§ 418. Admitting the view which we have taken of the 
formation of the Anglo-Saxon verb to be correct, it cannot 
be considered in any case as the direct source of the ad- 
verb, preposition, conjunction and interjection. These 
must therefore have some other origin assigned them. 

The indeclinable parts of speech are either derived from 
words which still exist in the language as nouns, adjec- 
tives or pronouns, or they are themselves primitive words, 
and, as such, were once used as nouns. In proof of our 
assertion we will give a few examples. 

1. With regard to Adverbs : as, 

Hwilum awhile, wow, from hwil time, space. 

Thancesf reely, gratefully jfrom thane favor, thanks, will, 

1 The various forms of these are : 

eala, aeala, eawla, hela ; — efne, aefne, eofne. 

keno, heonu \—hui, huig. 



INDECLINABLE PAKi'S OF Si'EECH. 

Gyt #ef,from giht lime, slaying. This noun in tbe sense 
of time is still found united with another word ; as, gebed- 
giht bed-time.. Its other forms are gihth, geht, gyte. 

Lange a long timers probably no other than the accu- 
sative fern, of lang long, hwile time being understood. 

2. With regard to Prepositions : as, 

Bi by, near, is the same as by a habitation. 

Gemang among, taking away the prefix ge, differs but 
little from menge a crowd, multitude. Menge exists as 
one of the numerous forms of maenigeo. 

Thurh, thuruh, through, thorough are the same as 
thuru, tliuruh, duru a door or passage of any kind. 

3. With respect to Conjunctions : as, 

Eac also, and, moreover, and eaca addition are one and 
the same. Eac must have been the form of the noun at 
one time. 

Gif if and the verb gifan to give must both be referred 
to nouns no longer in existence, but of which the con- 
junction may preserve the form. It is evident that the 
particle was needed in the language as soon as the verb. 

4. With respect to Interjections : as, 

Wa woe ! alas ! which is the noun wa woe, sorrow, af- 
fliction. 

5. Many of the indeclinable parts of speech in the lan- 
guage are compounds: as, na-hwaer nowhere; be-hindan 
behind; and-hwaether notwithstanding ; afaest-la O cer" 
tainly ! 



1 We may say that the adverb, preposition, and conjunction, have 
preserved, in many cases, the root of the noun and of the verb un- 
changed. But more of this view of the subject elsewhere. 
171 



PART III— SYNTAX. 



CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 



§ 419. Syntax, which is divided into Concord and 
Government, is the arrangement of words in a sentence, 
according to certain rules established by usage. 

1 . CONCORD. 

§ 420. The verb agrees with its nominative in number 
and person : as, 

Ic lufige I love. 

Thu wn'tst Thou writesl. 

He waes rihtwi's He was righteous. 

We standath We stand. 

Ge etath Ye or you eat. 

VVagas burston TVaves burst. 

Note. The subject usually stands before the verb, but when tha 
or thonne then, is introduced before a consequent proposition, ii is 
commonly placed after it ; although, as in English, the particle in 
most cases is omitted, and the subject maintains its natural position 
in the sentence. Negation also, in some instances, has the effect of 
throwing it after the verb. 

§ 421. A noun of multitude may have the verb either 
in the singular or plural number, or two verbs of different 
numbers even in the same sentence : as, 

Eall thaet folc aras and All the people arose and 
stodon. stood. 

172 



CONCORD. 

§ 422. Two or more nominatives in the singular con- 
nected by and and, either expressed or understood, have 
the verb in the plural : as, 

Synderlice hine Petrus and Peter and James and John 
lacobus and Iohannes and Andrew asked him 
and Andreas acsedon privately. 

§ 423. The verbs of affirmation or existence may have a 
nominative both before and after them : as, 

God wa'es thaet Word God was the Word. 

Thaet bith Godes weorc That is God's work. 

Hi'g wurdon gefry"nd They were made friends . 

§ 424. The first of the two nominatives may be one of 
the singular neuters, this and thaet, belonging to the verb, 
and referring to a noun, both in the plural : as, 
Ne synt na this wodes These (this) are not the 

mannes word words of a madman, 

§ 425. The article agrees with the noun which it defines 
in gender, number and case : as, 

Se an we aid a The governor. 

'Ilia haethenan The heathen. 

Thaes lichaman Of the body. 

§ 426. It also is frequently used before proper names, 
and after possessive and other pronouns : as, 
Se Johannes John. 

On thinum tham halgum In thy holy name. 

naman 
§ 427. All adjectives, including all other words havino- 
the nature of adjectives, agree with the nouns to which 
they belong in gender, number and case : as, 
Lengran dagas Longer days. 

Theos stow This place. 

Twegen englas Two angels. 

Locigende ge geseoth Looking ye shall see. 

173 15* 



§ 428. The perfect participle with habban to have does 
not always agree with the nominative, but is frequently 
inflected and made to agree with the governed word : as, 

A'enne haefde he swa One he had made so strong, 
swithne geworhtne 

§ 429. The relative agrees with its antecedent in gen- 
der and number, but its case depends upon some other word 
in the sentence : as, 

Sum wif seo haefde A certain woman ivho had. 

Thii the eart Thou who art* 

Se man, se the The man, he who. 

Se be tham He by whom. 

§ 430. The relative is frequently omitted : as, 
Tha wa'es sum consul Boe- Then was there a certain 
tius wa'es haten consul (who) ivas named 

Boelhius. 

§ 431. The personal pronoun supplies the place of the 
relative, when the goes before : as, 

The thurh his willan Through whose will. 

The thurh hine Through whom. 

§ 432. The interrogative and the word that answers to 
it, must be in the same case : as, 

Hwa'es anh'cnys ys this ? Whose image is this ? Cce- 
Thaes Caseres. sar's. 

$ 433. Nouns signifying the same thing agree in case : 
as, 

Aelfred Cyning King Alfred. 

§ 434. Sometimes a noun defined by the article is re- 
peated after the pronoun which expresses it, agreeing with 
it in the same case : as, 

He se bisceop He the bishop. 

174 



GOVERNMENT, 
2. GOVERNMENT. 

§ 435. One noun governs another, when a different per- 
son or thing is signified, in the genitive case : as, 
Godes mildse God's mercy. 

Waetera safes Waters of the sea. 

§ 436. A noun united with an adjective, which ex- 
presses either praise or blarney is put in the genitive : as, 
This folc is heardes modes. This people is of hard mind. 
He waes aethelre strynde. He was of a noble race. 

§ 437. Nouns denoting measure, value, age, and the 
like, are put in the genitive : as, 

Threora mila brad Three miles broad. 

Sex peninga wyrthe Sixpence worth. 

A'nes geares lamb A yearling lamb. 

§ 438. Nouns answering the question when ? are put 
either in the genitive or the dative ; but how long ? in the 
accusative : as, 

This waes feorthes geares This was in the fourth year. 

Othre sithe At another time. 

Thaer hi'g wa'eron seofon They were there seven en- 
dagas fulle tire days. 

§ 439. A noun answering the question where ? may be 
put in the genitive : as, 

Eorthan getenge Prostrate on the ground. 

§ 440. Ham home, when the question is made by 
whither ? is put in the accusative : as, 

Tha he ham com When he came home. 

§ 441. The cause, manner and instrument in relation to 
a thing are put in the dative case : as, 

His agenum willum Of his own will. 

Micelre stefne With a loud voice. 

Billum abreotan. With bills to destroy. 

175 



■■■■■IIIIUIIII 



SYNTAX. 

§ 442. Nouns are used absolutely in the dative case 
with participles : as, 

Gebigedum cneowjim Knees being bent. 

Him thencendum lie thinking. 

§ 443. A pronoun in the neuter gender sometimes go- 
verns the genitive case singular : as, 

Nanthing grenes Nothing green. 

§ 444. Adjectives denoting plenty, want, desert, likeness, 
dignity, care or desire, knowledge, ignorance, etc., govern 
either the dative or the genitive : as, 

Full Halgum Gaste Full of the Holy Spirit. 

Fugel fetherum deal A bird deficient in feathers. 

Deathes scyldig Deserving death. 

§ 445. Partitives, superlatives, interrogatives and nume- 
rals, usually employ the genitive case plural : as, 
Na'enig thinga iVo one of things. 

Scipfo, se besta Romana Scipio, the best of the Ro- 

witena man senators. 

Twentig wintra Twenty years. 

§ 446. The comparative degree governs nouns and pro- 
nouns in the dative case, when it can be translated by 
than: as, 

Hefigeran tha'ere a'e Weightier than the law. 

% 447. Verbs for the most part govern the accusative 
when a direct object is implied : as, 

Thisne man ic lunge I love this man. 



Notb. The object is commonly placed before the verb ; devia- 
tions from this rule, though, are frequent. 
176 



GOVERNMENT. 

§ 448. Verbs of governing, wanting, enjoying, and the 
like, require the genitive case : as, 

He wealt ealles He governs all. 

Ne thearf he nanes thinges Nor needs he anything. 
Gif hi thaes wudabenugon If they have enjoyment of 

the woods. 

§ 449. Verbs of serving, listening, answering, etc., govern 
the dative case : as, 

We theowiath blithelice We will serve the king with 

tham cynge joy. 

Sunu mm, hlyste minre My son, listen to my coun- 

lare sel. 

Tha ne myhton hi'g him Then were they not able to 

andswarian answer him. 

§ 450. A verb of affirmation or existence may govern the 
dative : as, 

Wes us fa'ele freond Be to us a faithful friend. 

§ 451. An impersonal verb governs the dative : as, 
Me tliuhte It seemed to me. 

§ 452. Reflexive verbs govern the pronoun in the accu- 
sative : as, 

Ic me reste I rest myself. 

Note. Reflexive and impersonal verbs generally follow both the 
subject and the object. 

§ 453. Verbs of thanking, admonishing, etc., govern the 

dative case of the person with the genitive of the thing : as, 

Sceolde his drihtne than- Should thank his lord for 

cian thaes leanes the reward. 

Manathone thaes angyldes Admonish that one of the 

recompense, 
m 



SYNTAX. 

§ 454. Verbs of ordering, giving, doing, and the like, 
govern the accusative with the dative : as, 

Thas thing ic eow beode This thing I order you. 
Hwaet gifst thu me What givest thou me ? 

Doth ge him that sylfe Do ye the same to them. 

§ 455. Verbs of asking, teaching, etc., govern the accu- 
sative both of the person and thing : as, 

Hyne axodon tha bi'gspell They asked of him the para- 
ble. 
Ic the maeg ta'ecan other i" can teach thee another 
thing thing. 

§ 456. Verbs of naming or terming govern both the ob- 
ject and the appellation in the accusative : as, 

God hetthafaestnisse heo- God called the firmament 

fenan heaven. 

Nemde hine Drihten. Termed him Lord. 

§ 457. Sometimes, however, we find the appellation in 
the nominative : as, 

Tha wa'es sum consul thaet Then was there a certain 
we heretoha hatath. consul that we callhere- 

toha. 

§ 458. But hatan signifying to be called or named, takes 
a nominative both before and after it : as, 

Se hatte Lucifer Who was called Lucifer. 

§ 459. One verb governs another that depends upon it, 
in the infinitive mood : as, 

Hwaet sceal ic singan ? What shall or ought I to 

sing ? 

§ 460. The infinitive mood may be preceded by the ac- 
cusative case : as, 

Swa ge geseoth me habban As ye see me have 

178 



GOVERNMENT, 

§ 461. The gerund is always governed by the preposi- 
tion to which precedes it : as, 

Ic do eow to witanne i" do you to wit. 

§ 462. Participles and gerunds have the same govern- 
ment as the verbs to which they belong : as, 

Cwethende thaet ylce ge- Uttering the same prayer. 

bed 
Hearran to habbanne A lord to have. 

§ 463. The perfect participle of a verb which governs 
two cases, when united with a verb of existence, retains 
only the latter of them : as, 

Wa'es him nama sceapen A name was given him. 

§ 464. Adverbs qualify other words, and some of them 
may be defined by the indeclinable article : as, 
Wi'slice ic sprece I speak wisely. 

To mice! Too much. 

Neah fif thiisenda wera Almost five thousand men. 

S withe wel Very well. 

The laes The less. 

Th^- ma The more. 

§ 465. Two or more negatives strengthen the nega- 
tion : as, 

Ne geseah naefre nan man No man ever (never) saw 
God (not) God. 

§ 466. Some adverbs govern the genitive : as, 
Forth nihtes Far in the night. 

Mid laes worda With less words. 

Nehst tha'ere eaxe Nearest the axle. 

Note. Adverbs for the most part are placed arbitrarily in the sen- 
tence. IN e always stands before the verb which it qualifies. Words 
compounded with this particle do not express a complete negation un- 

179 



SYNTAX. 

less it is also added in its simple state, and occupies its proper posi- 
tion. When na having the sense of not, is used in connexion with 
it, the verb is placed between them. Nor and not are expressed by 
ne ne when one ne already precedes, or after neither neither, by only 
a single ne in each member. 

§ 467. Prepositions govern different cases as specified 
in § 413. Thus, 

Tomiddes hyra In the midst of them. 

Of aelcum treowe Of every tree. 

Thurh me sylfne By myself, 

§ 468. Conjunctions connect sentences and parts of sen- 
tences, as well as words of the same kind : as, 

Ic eom win-eard and ge i" am a vine and ye are 

synt twigu branches. 

Gesceop God heofenan and God created heaven and 

eorthan earth. 

Oth thone an and twentugo- Until the one and twentieth 

than daeg thaes ylcan day of the same month. 

month es. 

§ 469. The conjunctions gif if thaet that, sam whether, 
theah though, swilce as if etc., are followed by the sub- 
junctive mood when anything doubtful or contingent is 
implied : as, 

Gif he wille and cunne his If he will and can confess 

da'eda andettan his deeds. 

Hwaet do ic thaet ic ece What shall I do that I may 

h'f age have eternal life ? 

Sam hio monnum god Whether it may seem good 
thince to men, 

§ 470. But when a simple declaration is made, the in- 
dicative follows : as, 

Gif we secgath If we say. 

180 



GOVERNMENT. 

§471. The verbal conjunction utan, uton, utun let us, 
governs the infinitive : as 

Utan biddan God Let us beseech God. 

Uton gan heonon Let us go hence. 

Utun faran to Bethleem Let us go to Bethlehem. 

§ 472. Interjections may be followed by a nominative, 
dative or accusative case : as, 

La thu liccetere O thou hypocrite ! 

Wa tham men Wo to the man ! 

Wa, eow boceras Wo to you scribes ! 

§ 473. The indefinite form of the adjective is used with 
common nouns, when the interjection is either expressed 
or understood : as, 

Ea!a, leof hlaford Alas! beloved master. 

Awyrgede woruld-sorga Accursed worldly cares ! 

§ 474. But with pronouns of the first and second persons, 
the definite form usually occurs : as, 

Ic wrecca Wretched me ! 

Thii stunta Foolish thou I 



181 16 



PART IV.— PROSODY. 

OF 

ANGLO-SAXON POETRY IN GENERAL. 

§ 475. Anglo-Saxon poetry in its nature resembles the 
abrupt, nervous expressions of man in his uncultivated 
state. Its leading characteristic is periphrasis, which is 
always mingled with metaphor, and sometimes in great 
abundance, while artificial inversions of words and phrases 
are not uncommon. In its constitution it is precisely such 
as we would expect to meet with in an age when bards 
sung the praises of heroes, taking up and arranging the 
epithets showered upon them by the applauding multitude, 
interspersed with any ideas that might occur to their own 
minds. And this feature appears as well when sacred sub- 
jects are the poet's theme as any others. The praises of 
the Deity and of the warrior chieftain are celebrated in like 
strains. 

§ 476. The poetry of the Anglo-Saxons is of two kinds, 
native or vernacular and Latin. The latter originated from 
the Roman and follows the same laws. It is the con- 
struction of the former that requires a brief consideration 
in this place. 

§ 477. The only rule which they appear to have ob- 
served in the composition of their native verses was that of 
pleasing the ear, and this they effected by combining their 



ANGLO-SAXON POETRY IN GENERAL. 

words into a rhythmical cadence. iU Rhythmus," says 
Bede, " is a modulated composition of words, not accord- 
ing to the laws of metre, but adapted in the number of its 
syllables to the judgment of the ear, as are the verses of our 
vulgar (or native) poets. Rhythm may exist without me- 
tre, but there cannot be metre without rhythm, which is 
thus more clearly defined. 

" Metre is an artificial rule with modulation : rhythmus 
is the modulation wilhout the rule. Yet, for the most 
part, you may find, by a sort of chance, some rule in 
rhythm, but this is not from an artificial government of the 
syllables. It arises because the sound and the modulation 
lead to it. The vulgar poets effect this rustically : the 
skilful attain it by their skill.'" 

§ 478. This rhythmus " the skilful" produced b} T such 
a choice and arrangement of their words, not disregarding 
accent, that the same length of time was required for pro- 
nouncing any two or more corresponding lines in a poem, 
although one of them might contain fewer syllables than 
the other. But in general they were satisfied with a near 
approach to the proper cadence. The following examples 
will illustrate the principle. Thus, 

Thohton tilian 
Fylle on faetum — 
Urig faethera 
Salowig pada — 
Wordum he'figen, 
Modum lufien — 
Heafod ealra 
Heah gesceafta, 
Frea Aelmihtig- 



Judith. 



i83 






Again : 






Also: 



PROSODY. 



Wereda wuldor - cyning — 
Ymb the heolster - sceado — 
Thurh thfnra meahta sped. — 

Caedmon. 

Mine wea - thearfa ongunnon, 

Thaet thaes monnes 

Magas hycgon, 

Thurh tyrodne gethoht, 

Thaet hy todaeldon unc : 

Thaet wit, gewidost 

In vvoruld - rice, 

Liftlon lath - licost, 

And mec longade. 

Hat mec hlaford mm 

Her heard niman. 



Exile's Song, 



And lastly : 



Thaet is wyrthe, 
Thaet the wer - theoda 
Secgon Dryhtne thane 
Dugutha gehwylcre, 
Tiie us, sith and cer, 
Simle gefremede, 
Thurh manigfealdra 
Maegna geryno. 

Hymn on the Creation. 

§ 479. Alliteration, though sometimes used, was never 
a fundamental principle in Anglo-Saxon poetry. It con- 
sists in employing three words beginning with the same 
letter, if a consonant, in two adjacent and connected lines 
of verse. The most important alliterative letter, termed 






ANGLO-SAXON POETRY IN GENERAL. 

the chief letter, always stands in the second line, while the 
two others which are called assistants, occupy places in 
the first. The following extract from a poem on the Day 
of Judgment, furnishes examples of this sort of alliteration, 
and likewise contains rhyme. Thus, 

Swa /telle Aearthu 
Swa Zieofenes maerthu , 
Swa Zeohte /eoht, 
Swa /athe niht ; 
Swa (/irymmes (frraece, 
Swa (Ziystra wraece ; 
Swa mid Drihten Jream, 
Swa mid deoflum hream ; 
Swa wite mid iwathum, 
Swa wuldor mid arum; 
>Swa Iff, swa death, 
<Swa him leof bi'th. 

§ 480. In prefixed words the alliterative letter is the one 
that comes after the prefix ; and whenever the chief letter 
is a vowel the assistants are also vowels, but not necessa- 
rily the same. The initial of an unemphatic particle is 
never considered. But the reader must not expect to find 
an alliteration in every case regularly constituted. 

§ 481. All the poetry of the Anglo-Saxons may be ar- 
ranged under three heads, songs or ballads, narrative po- 
ems or romances, and lyrics. By the latter term we must 
understand their productions of a miscellaneous kind. Only 
a few specimens of their ballads and romances in the ver- 
nacular language have come down to us. 



m 16< 



A LIST OF ANGLO-SAXON PHRASES. 



A' forth ever forth, from thence. 

A' to aid re forever. 

A' world world always, forever. 

A' thy betera ever the better. 

A' thy ma ever the more. 

Aefre to aid re forever. 

Aefterran sithe secondly. 

Aefter burgum through cities, openly, publicly. 

Aefter faece after a space, afterwards. 

Aefter rihte after right, rightly, justly. 

Aefter tham the, aefter thon the after that, after, after* 
wards. 

Aeghwilc thinga of all manners or fashions. 

Aeghwilce wisan in every manner, all manner of ways. 

Aegther ge heonan ge thanan both here and there, on this 
side and that. 

Aelce healfe, aelce wise in all ways or every manner. 

Aelces cynnes of each sort or all sorts. 

A'er the, a'er tham the, a'er tham thaet before that, ere 
that. 

A'erest sona, aerest thinga, aet a'erestan at first, first of all. 

A'ern micel very much. 

Aet fruman in the beginning. 

Aet handa at hand. 

Aetneahestan at last. 

Aet rihtost by and by, presently. 

Aet sithestan, aet si'themestan at length, at last. 

A'genes thances of his own accord, freely. 

186 



A LIST OF ANGLO-SAXON PHRASES. 

Ahwonan utan from without, outwardly, extrinsically. 

An eagan beorht in the glance of an eye, in a twinkling. 

And genii elles and the like. 

And swa feorth and so forth. 

A'nes hwaet at all, in any degree, anything. 

A'wa to oldie forever. 

Be anfealdum single. 
Be daele in part, partly. 
Be eastan on the east, eastward. 
Be hwon whence. 

Be swiicum and be swilcum by such and the like. 
Be t wife aid on twofold. 
Be tham maestan at the most. 
Be tham the as. 

Betwyh thas thing between these things, in the mean 
while, whilst. 

Bf thisse wi'san for this cause, hence, therefore. 
Bit-ma'elum piecemeal, in parts, by degrees. 

Dael-maelum piecemeal, in parts. 
Drop-ma'elum in drops, drop by drop. 

Eac swa, eac swilce, so also, also, moreover, very like, 
even so. 

Eall swa eft so often. 

Eall swa miceles for so much, at that price. 

Ealle aetsomne in like manner, at once, altogether. 

Ealle gemete, eallum gemetum by all means, altogether. 

Ealles, ealle waega of all, fully, altogether, in all ways. 

Eallne waeg always. 

East inne in the east. 

East rihte due east, by or near the east. 

Eathe maeg, a'ethe maeg easily can, perhaps. 

Eft sona, efter sona soon after, soon. 

187 



A LIST OF ANGLO-SAXON PIIRASF.S. 

Eft tha embe lytel after a little then. 

Elles hwaer elsewhere. 

Elles maest chiejlij. 

Elles ofer from some other place. 

Emne swa equally so, even so. 

For hwaega at least. 

For hwam, for hwi wherefore, why. 

For hwon wherefore. 

For thaere wisan/o/- that reason, wherefore. 

For thon the because. 

For thy for that, wherefore. 

For thy the for that which, since. 

For thysse wisan/or //u's cause, hence, therefore. 

Foran ongean opposite. 

Forth dages/c/r in /Ae Ja^. 

Forth nihtes far in the night. ■ 

Fot-maelum, fotmael by steps, step by step, 

Gemang tham in the mean time. 
Geneah ge feor both far and near. 

Geo aer, geo dagum, geo gara, geo geara, geo hwi'Ium 
heretofore, long ago. 

Git beheonan, or get behionan yet nearer. 

Hidres thidres hither and thither. 
Hii geares however. 

Hii hugu, hii hwego about, almost, nearly. 
Hu ne not, whether or not. 
Hugu da'el a little, but a little, at least. 
Hum thinga at least, at all events, yet, only, indeed, espe- 
cially. 

Hwaene aer, hwene aer, scarcely before, just before. 
Hwaene laes a little less. 

Hwaet hugu somewhat, almost, nearly. 
' m 



A LIST OF ANGLO-SAXON THRASES. 

Hwaet hwaega, hwaet hweg, hwaet hwega, hwaet 
hwugu, hwaet hwygu about, a little, somewhat, 
Hwaet hwara somewhere. 
Hwaet lytles a little, somewhat. 
Hwaet tha. wherefore then, what then, but. 
Hwider wega somewhere. 
Hwi'lon a'er sometime before. 
Hwilon an, hwi'lon twa now one, now two. 
Hwylce hugu how little, as little as. 
Hyder geond yonder. 

In aid re fore ver. 

Jn ste'de in the place, instead. 

Lim-ma'elum limb by limb. 

Litlum and litlum by little and little. 

Ma the more than. 

Maest ealle most of all, almost all. 

Micele ma much more. 

Mid a'er daege at the early day or first dawn. 

Mid ealle with all, altoge'her, entirely. 

Mid rihte with justice, rightly, really. 

Mid tham the, mid thon, mid thon the with that, while, 
when, whereas, in as much as, for as much as, seeing that. 

Mid thy, mid thy tha, mid thy the when, whilst, there- 
upon, as soon as, after that, when therefore. 

Na elles, na hii elles not otherwise. 
Na hwonan litane nowhere without. 
Na the laes, no th^ - laes nevertheless. 
Na'enige gemete in no wise, by no means. 
Na'enige thinga in no one of things, not at all, 
Naes na, naes ne neither. 

Nate thaes hwon, or contracted, nateshwon, ni 4 " o hwi 
by no means, not at all. 

189 



A LIST OF ANGLO-SAXON PHRASES. 

Ne on aldre never. 

Neah and efene almost, well nigh. 

Nean and feorran//w?i near and far. 

Nese, nese no no, by no means. 

No hvvit elles nothing else. 

Nohtes hvvon without doubt. 

Nu gyt hitherto, as yet. 

Nu hwaene tier just now, a little while before. 

Nu hwonne now and then, sometimes. 

Nu nu now now, immediately. 

Nu rihte straightway. 

Nu to morgen to-morrow. 

Nu tha just now, now then. 

Of ansine to ansine face to face. 
Of dime from the mountain, down, downwards. 
Of hwylcere wis&nfrom which cause, whence. 
On aefteweard behind. 

On aegther hand, on aegthere healfe on either handy on 
either half or side, on both sides. 

On aegthre healfe weard towards both sides. 

On aelcere tide at all times. 

On aeltheode, on aeltheodignesse/zw^ abroad, from far. 

On a'er daege at the first dawn. 

On a'eran, on aeron, on a'er daegum formerly. 

On aewiscnesse, openly, as not being ashamed to be seen. 

On an in one, continually 

On baec behind, afterwards. 

On daeg in the day, day by day. 

On diglum in secret. 

On ecnysse forever. 

On emn opposite, over against. 

On eorneste, on eornust in earnest. 

On fruman in the beginning. 

190 



A LIST OF ANGLO-SAXON PHRASES. 

On gemang tham in the mean time- then. 

On hwon how little. 

On hlite, on hlyte, on hlote by lot, free. 

On idel in vain. 

On lande in the country. 

On laste at last, at length, finally, after, behind. 

On morgen in the morning, early. 

On othre wi'san in another manner, otherwise. 

On sundran, on sundron in a separate part, separately, 
apart, asunder. 

On symbol at all times. 

On thane, on thonce with gratitude, gratefully, thank- 
fully, gratis, freely. 

On thon thaet /or the reason that. 

On uppan against. 

Oth on even unto, as far as. 

Oth thaes until this, hitherto. 

Oth thaet until that, thitherto. 

Other hwile sometimes. 

Oththe furthum or further, also, moreover. 

Oththe hwile or while, until. 

Oththe this or this, even until now. 

Same ylce swa in such wise, as, so as. 
Sona aefter soon after, again. 
Sona hrathe soon ready, immediately. 
Sona instaepe in the very step or place. 
Sona thaes the, sona swa immediately. 
Sticce-maelum, stycce-maelum, piece by piece, by hi tie 
and little, by degrees. 

Sume da'ele in some part, or measure. 
Swa efne even so. 

Swa forth oththe thenceforth, until. 
Swa gerade in such manner, such like. 

191 



A LIST OF ANGLO-SAXON PHRASES. 

Swa hwaer svva wheresoever. 

Swa hwaeder swa, swa hwider swa whithersoever. 

Swa leng the longer. 

Swa micle swithor so much the more. 

Swa mycele ma so much the more. 

Swa same likewise, also. 

Swa same swa the same as, as, even as. 

Swa swithe so long as, in the mean time. 

Swa. swithor — swa swithor the more — the more. 

SwS swithost as best. 

Swa thearie very exceeding or exceedingly, as much at 



Swilce swilce such as ; swilce — swilce such — as. 

Tha — tha then — when, when — then. 
Tha gyt as yet, moreover. 

Tha hwile, tha hwi'le the the while that, the while, while. 
Tha sona as soon, immediately. 
Tha sona tha as soon as. 
Tha swithor the rather. 

Thaer thaer there where, where ; thaer — thaer where — 
there, there — where. 
Thaer of thereof. 
Thaer on thereon. 

Thaer rihte there directly, instantly, immediately, just. 
Thaer to thereto. 

T^iaes longa thaes the period that. 
Thaes the since that, after, for that, because that, that. 
Thaes the ma or mare so much the more. 
Tham mycle ma by so much the more. 
That is aerost that is first, in the first place. 
The laes hwaenne lest at any time. 
The ma the the more than. 
The ah gita as yet y hitherto. 

192 



A LIST OF ANGLO-SAXON PHRASES. 

Theah hwaethere yet nevertheless , moreover, but yet, but. 
Theah the although. 
Thonan the — thonan whence — thence. 
Ihurh syndrige dagas through sundry days, one day after 
another, day by day. 

To anum to anum from one to another, only. 

To bote to boot, with advantage, besides, moreover. 

To daeg to-day. 

To eacan besides, moreover. 

To emnes opposite to, opposite, over against. 

To hwon how little. 

To morgen to-morrow. 

To niht to-night. 

T6 tham a'er daegejust before day. 

To tha'em, to thi for that, therefore. 

To tha'em anum for this end, only. 

To tha'em swithe so that, so far forth. 

To tha'em thaet to the end that, furthermore. 

To thaes the to that end. 

To thance, to thonce thankfully, gratis. 

To thon so. 

To thon thaet, to th^ thaet to the end that. 

To thy for that cause. 

Under baec behind, backwards. 
Under lyfte in the open air. 

Wei hwaer,wel gehwaer for the most part. 

Ymbe lytel after a little. 

1 The foregoing phrases which comprise the most of those in com- 
mon use, have been given as they are generally found in Anglo- 
Saxon works. Some of them, as will have been perceived, are ad- 
verbial and conjunctional, and others prepositional. The syntactical 
order of each member will also have been observed, 
193 17 



APPENDIX A. 

ON THE ALPHABET OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 



" It has been much doubted whether the Anglo-Saxons 
had the use of letters when they possessed themselves of 
England. It is certain that no specimen of any Saxon writ- 
ing, anterior to their conversion to Christianity, can be pro- 
duced. It cannot, therefore, be proved that they had letters 
by any direct evidence, and yet some reasons may be stated 
which make it not altogether safe to assert too positively, 
that our ancestors were ignorant of the art of writing in 
their pagan state. 

1st. Alphabetical characters were used by the Northern 
nations on the Baltic before they received Christianity, 1 and 
the origin of these is ascribed to Odin, who heads the gene- 
alogies of the ancient Saxon chieftains as well as those of 
Sweden, Norway, and Denmark : and who is stated to have 
settled in Saxony before he advanced to the North. Either 
the pagan Saxons were acquainted with the Runic cha- 
racters, or they were introduced in the North after the fifth 
century, when the Saxons came to Britain, and before the 
middle of the sixth, when they are mentioned by Fortu- 
natus, which is contrary to the history and traditions of the 
Scandinavian nations, and to probability. We may remark, 



1 1 would not attribute to the Runic letters an extravagant antiquity, 
but the inscriptions on rocks, etc., copied by Wormius, in his Litera- 
ture Runicse, and by Stephanius, in his notes on Saxo, proved that 
the Northerns used them before they received Christianity. 

194 



APPENDIX A. 

that Run is used in Anglo-Saxon 2 as Runar in the Ice- 
landic, to express letters or characters. It is true that 
Odin used the runar for the purpose of magic, and that in 
Saxon run-craeftig, skilled in runse, signifies a magician ; 3 
but the magical application of characters is no argument 
against their alphabetical nature, because many of the 
foolish charms which our ancestors and other nations have 
respected, have consisted, not merely of alphabetical cha- 
racters, but even of words. 4 

2d. The passage of Venantius Fortunatus, written in the 
middle of the sixth century, attests that the Runic was 
used for the purpose of writing in his time. He says : 

The barbarous Runse is painted on ashen tablets, 
And what the papyrus says, a smooth rod effects. 

Now as the Anglo-Saxons were not inferior in civiliza- 
tion to any of the barbarous nations of the North, it cannot 
be easily supposed that they were ignorant of Runic cha- 
racters, 6 if their neighbors used them. 

2 So Cedmon uses the word, run bith gerecenod, p. 73 ; hwaet seo 
run bude, p. 86; that he to him the letters should read and explain, 
hwaet seo run bude. p. 99 ; he had before said, in his account of 
Daniel and Belshazzar, that the angel of the Lord wrat tha in wage 
word a gerynu baswe bocstaf'as, p. 90. 

3 Thus Cedmon says, the run-craeftige men could not read the 
handwriting till Daniel came, p. 90. 

4 One passage in a Saxon MS. confirms this idea : " Then asked 
the ealdorman the heft-ling, whether through dry-craeft , or through 
ryn-stafas, he had broken his bonds ; and he answered that he knew 
nothing of this craft." Vesp. D. 14, p. 132. Now ryn-stafas means 
literally ryn letters. We may remark that the Welsh word for Al- 
phabet is coel bren, which literally means the tree or wood of Omen ; 
and see the Saxon description of the northern Runee, in Hickes's 
Gram. Ang. Sax , p. 135. 

6 There are various alphabets of the Runas, but their differences 
are not very great, I consider those characters to be most interesting 
which have been taken from the ancient inscriptions remaining in 

195 



APPENDIX A. 

3d. Though it cannot be doubted that the letters of our 
Saxon MSS., written after their conversion, are of Roman 
origin, except only two, the th, ]?, and the p, the thorn 
and the wen, yet these two characters are all allowed by 
the best critics to be of Runic parentage ; and if this be 
true, it will show that the Anglo-Saxons were acquainted 
with Runic as well as with Roman characters w T hen they 
commenced the handwriting that prevails in their MSS. 

4th. If the Saxons had derived the use of letters from 
the Roman ecclesiastics, it is probable that they would 
have taken from the Latin language the words they used to 
express them. Other nations so indebted, have done this. 
To instance from the Erse lano-uao-e : 

For book, they have leabhar, from liber, 
letter liter 6 litera. 

C scriobham scribere. 



to write 



gratam yqacpta. 

scriobhadh scriptura. 



, ( leagham > , 

to read ■ f, > legere. 

( leabham ; 

But nations who had known letters before they became 

acquainted with Roman literature, would have indigenous 

terms to express them. 

The Saxons have such terms. The most common word 

by which the Anglo-Saxons denoted alphabetical letters 

was staef ; plural stafas, — Elfric, in his Saxon Grammar, so 

uses it. The copy of the Saxon coronation oath begins 

with, ' This writing is written, staef be staefe (letter by 

letter) from that writing w T hich Dunstan, archbishop, gave 



the North. Wormius gives these, Lit. Run., p. 58. Hickes, in his 
Gram. Anglo-Is]., c. I, gives several Runic alphabets. 

6 In the Erse Testament, Greek letters are expressed by litrichibh 
Greigis. Luke xxiii. 38. 

196 



APPENDIX A. 

to our lord at Kingston.' In the same sense the word is 
used in Alfred's translation of Bede, and in the Saxon 
Gospels. It is curious to find the same word so applied in 
the Runic mythology. In the Vafthrudis-mal, one of the 
odes of the ancient Edda of Semund, it occurs in the speech 
of Odin, who says, ' fornum stavfom,' in the ancient letters.' 
The numerous compound words derived from staef, a 
letter, show it to have been a radical term in the language, 
and of general application. 

Staef-creft, the art of letters. 

Staefen-row, the alphabet. 

Staef-gefeg, a syllable. 

Staeflic, learned. 

Staefnian, to teach letters. 

Staef-plega, a game at letters. 

Staef-wise, wise in letters. 

Stafa-heafod, the head of the letters. 

Stafa-naman, the names of the letters. 

The same word was also used like the Latin litera, to 
signify an epistle. 8 

The art of using letters, or writing, is also expressed in 
Saxon by a verb not of Roman origin. The Saxon term 
for the verb to write, is not like the Erse expression, 

7 Edda Semund, p. 3. Tn the Icelandic Gospels, for Latin and 
Hebrew letters we have Latiniskum and Ebreskum bokstefum. 
Luke xxiii. 38. The Franco-theotisc, for letters, has a similar com- 
pound word, bok-staven. 

s When a letter or authoritative document is mentioned in Saxon, 
the expressions applied to it are not borrowed from the Latin, as 
scriptum, mandatum, epistola, and such like ; but it is said, " Hono- 
rius sent the Scot a ge-writ," Sax. Ch. 39 ; desired the Pope with his 
ge-writ to confirm it, ib. 38. So Alfred, translating Bede, says, 
" The Pope sent to Augustin pallium and ge-writ ;" here bor- 
rowing from the Latin the pallium, a thing known to them from the 
Romans, but using a native Saxon term to express the word epistle. 
]97 17*= 



APPENDIX A. . 

from the Latin scribere, but is 'awritan,' or ' gewritan.' 
This verb is formed from a similar noun of the same mean- 
ing as staef. The noun is preserved in the Maeso-Gothic, 
where writs signifies ' a letter.' 

In like manner the Saxons did not derive their word for 
book from the Latin liber ; they expressed it by their own 
term, ' boc,' as the Northerns called it ' bog.' 

I do not mean to assert indiscriminately, that whenever 
a word indigenous in a language is used to express writing, 
it is therefore to be inferred that the people using that lan- 
guage have also letters ; because it may so happen that the 
word may not have been an indigenous term for letters, 
but for something else ; and may have been applied to ex- 
press letters only analogically or metaphorically. To give 
an instance : the Indians of New England expressed let- 
ters, or writing, by the terms wussukwhonk, or wussuk- 
wheo-. But the Indians had no letters nor writing among: 
them : whence then had they these words ? The answer 
is, that they were in the habit of painting their faces and 
their garments, and when we made them acquainted with 
writing,* they applied to it their word for painting. 9 But 
though they could figuratively apply their term for painting 
to express writing, they had nothing to signify a book, 
and therefore it was necessary to ingraft our English word 
1 book' into their language for that purpose. 

On the whole, I am induced to believe that the Anglo- 
Saxons were not unacquainted with alphabetical charac- 
ters when they came into England. However this may 
be, it is certain that if they had ancient letters, they ceased 

9 Thus wu?sukhosu was a painted coat. Williams' Key to the 
Language of America, p. 184. ed. 1643, and see his remark, p. 61. 
The Malays, who have borrowed their letters from other nations, 
have used the same analogy. Their word " to write," is toolis, 
which also signifies to paiat. See Howison's Malay Dictionary. 
193 



APPENDIX A. 

to use them after their conversion. It was the invariable 
policy of the Roman ecclesiastics to discourage the use of 
the Runic characters, because they were of pagan origin, 
and had been much connected with idolatrous supersti- 
tions. 10 Hence as soon as the Christian clergy acquired 
influence in the Saxon octarchy, all that appeared in their 
literature was in the character which they had formed 
from the Romans; 

We know nothing of the compositions of the Anglo- 
Saxons in their pagan state. Tacitus mentions generally 
of the Germans that they had ancient songs, and therefore 
we may believe that the Anglo-Saxons were not without 
them. Indeed, Dunstan is said to have learned the vain 
songs of his countrymen in their pagan state ; and we may 
suppose that if such compositions had not been in existence 
at that period, Edgar would not have forbidden men, on 
festivals, to sing heathen songs. But none of these had sur- 
vived to us. If they were ever committed to writing it 
was on wood or stones ; indeed, their word for book, hoc, 
expresses a beech tree, and seems to allude to the matter 
of which their earliest books were made. 11 The poets of 

10 The Swedes were persuaded by the Pope, in 1001, to lay aside 
the Runic letters, and to adopt the Roman in their stead. They were 
gradually abolished in Denmark, and afterwards in Iceland. 

11 Wormius infers, ihat pieces of wood cut from the beech tree were 
the ancient northern books, Lit. Run. p. 6. Saxo-Grammaticus men- 
tions, that Fengo's Ambassadors took with them literasTgno insculp- 
tas, " because," adds Saxo, " that was formerly a celebrated kind of 
material to write upon," lib. iii. p. 52. Besides the passage formerly 
cited from Fortunatus, we may notice another, in which he speaks of 
the bark as used to contain characters. See Worm., p. 9, who says, 
that no wood more abounds in Denmark than the beech, nor is any 
more adapted to receive impressions, ib. p. 7. In Welsh, gwydd, a 
tree, or wood, is used to denote a book. So Gwilym Tew talks of 
reading the gwydd. Owen's Diet. voc. Gwydd. 

189. 



APPENDIX B. 



barbarous ages usually confide the little effusions of their 
genius to the care of tradition. They are seldom preserv- 
ed in writing till literature becomes a serious study ; and 
therefore we may easily believe, that if the Anglo-Saxons 
had alphabetical characters, they were much more used for 
divinations, charms, and funeral inscriptions than for lite- 
rary compositions. " — Sharon Turner, — Hist, of the Anglo- 
Saxons, Vol. I, B. II, App., Chap. IV. 



APPENDIX B. 

ON THE COPIOUSNESS OF THE ANGLO-SAXON 
LANGUAGE." 



u This language has been thought to be a very rude and 
barren tongue, incapable of expressing anything but the 
most simple and barbarous ideas. The truth, however, is, 
that it is a very copious language, and is capable of ex- 
pressing any subject of human thought. In the technical 
terms of those arts and sciences which have been disco- 
vered, or much improved, since the Norman Conquest, it 
must of course be deficient. But books of history, belles- 
lettres, and poetry, may be now written in it, with con- 
siderable precision and correctness, and even with much 
discrimination, and some elegance of expression. 

The Saxon abounds with synonymes. I will give a 
few instances of those which my memory can supply." 

Our author here introduces a number of words as sy- 
nonymes, but which rather express the same objects under 
different relations. 

209 



APPENDIX B. 

u They had a great number of words for a ship, and to 
express the Supreme, they used more words and phrases 
than I can recollect to have seen in any other language. 

Indeed, the copiousness of their language was receiv- 
ing perpetual additions from the lays of their poets. I 
have already mentioned that the great features of their poe- 
try were metaphor and periphrasis. On these they prided 
themselves. To be fluent in .these was the great object 
of their emulation, and the great test of their merit. 
Hence, Cedmon, in his account of the deluge, uses near 
thirty synonymous words and phrases to express the ark. 
They could not attain this desired end without making 
new words and phrases by new compounds, and most of 
these became naturalized in the language. The same zeal 
for novelty of expression led them to borrow words from 
every other language which came within their reach." 

********* 

" But the great proof of the copiousness and power of 
the Anglo-Saxon language may be had from considering 
our own English, which is principally Saxon. It may be 
interesting to show this by taking some lines of our princi- 
pal authors, and marking in Italics the Saxon words they 
contain." 

SHAKSPEARE. 

To be or not to be, that is the question ; 
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer 
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, 
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, 
And by opposing end them ? To die, to sleep ; 
No more ! and by a sleep to say we end 
The heart-ach, and the thousand natural shocks 
The flesh is heir to! "'twere a, consummation 
Devoutly to be wished. To die, to sleep ; 
To sleep ? perchance to dream I 
2t)l 



APPENDIX B. 



MILTON. 



With thee conversing I forget all time, 
All seasons, and their change ; all please alike. 
Swert is the breath of mom, her rising sweet, 
With charm of earliest birds ; pleasant the sun 
When first on this delightful land he spreads 
His orient beams on herb, tree, fruit and flower, 
Glistening with dew ; fragrant the fertile earth 
After soft shoicers ; and sweet the coming on 
Of grateful evening mild; then silent night 
With this her solemn bird, and this fair moon, 
And these the gems of heaven, her starry train. 



Mark that swift arrow ; how it cuts the air I 

How it outruns the following eye! 

Use all persuasions now and try 
Jf thou canst call it back, or stay it there. 

That way it went ; but thou shaltfind 

No track is left behind. 
Fool! 'tis thy life, and the fond archer thou. 

Of all the time thou'st shot away 

Til bid thee fetch but yesterday, 
And it shall be loo hard a task to do. 

TRANSLATORS OF THE BIBLE. 

And they made ready the present against Joseph came at noon: for 
they heard that they should eat bread there. And tchen Joseph came 
home, they brought him the present which teas in their hand into the house, 
and bowed themselves to him to the earth. And he asked them of their 
welfare, and said, Is your father well, the old man of whom ye spake? 
Is he yet alive ? And they answered, thy servant our father is in good 
health, he is yet alive. And they bowed down their heads, and made 
obeisance. And he lifted up his eyes, and saw his brother Benjamin, 
his mother's son, and said, Is this your younger brother, of whom ye spake 
unto me ? And he said, God be gracious unto thee, my son. Gen. xliii. 
25—29. 

Then when Mary was come where Jesus was, and saw him, site fell 
down at his feet, saying unto him, Lord, if thou hadst been here, my ho- 

202 



APPENDIX B. 

ther had not died. When Jesus therefore saw her weeping, and the 
Jews also weeping which came with her, he groaned in the spirit, and 
was troubled. And said, Where have ye laid him? They said unto 
him, Lord, come and. see. Jesus wept. Then said the Jews, Behold 
how he loved him. John xi. 32 — 36. 

THOMSON. 

These as they change, Almighty Father, these 
Are but the varied God. The rolling year 
Is full of thee. Full in the pleasing spring 
Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness and love. 
Wide flush the fields ; the sofuning air is balm ; 
Echo t/ie mountains round ; the forest smiles ; 
And every sense and every heart is joy. 
Then conies thy glory in the summer months, 
With light and heat refulgent. Then thy sun 
Shoots full perfection through the swelling year. 



I was yesterday, about sunset, walking in the open fields, till the night 
insensibly fell upon me. I at first amused myself with all the richness 
and variety of colors vjhich appeared in the western parts of heaven. 
In proportion as they faded away and went out, several stars and pla- 
nets appeared, one after another, till the whole firmament was in a 
glow. The blueness of the aether was exceedingly heightened and en- 
livened by the season of the year. 

SPENSER. 

Hard is the doubt, and difficult to deem, 

When all three kinds of love togetlier meet, 

And do dispart the heart with power extreme, 

Whether shall vjeigh the balance down ; to weet 

The dear affection unto kindred sweet, 

Or raging fire of love to woman kind, 

Or zeal of friends combined with virtues meet : 

But of them all the band of virtuous mind 

Me seems the gentle heart should most- assured bend. 

Book 4. C. 9. 

203 



APPENDIX B. 



LOCKE. 



Every man, being conscious to himself, that he thinks, and that, which 
his mind is applied about whilst thinking, being the ideas that are there ; 
it is past doubt, that men have in their minds several ideas. Such are 
those expressed by the words, whiteness, hardness, sweetness, thinking, 
motion, man, elephant, army, drunkenness, and others. It is in the 
first place, then, to be inquired, How he comes by them ? I know it is 
a received doctrine that men have native ideas, and original characters 
stamped upon their minds in their very first being. Locke's Essay, 
Book 11, Ch. L 



How happy is the blameless vestal's lot! 

The vjorld forgetting, by tlie world forgot; 

Eternal sunshine of the spotless mind! 

Each pray'r accepted, and each wish resign 'd ; 

Labor and rest that equal periods keep ; 

Obedient slumbers that can wake and weep; 

Desires composed, affections ever even; 

Tears that delight, and sighs that waft to heaven, 

Grace shines around her with serenest beams, 

And whispering angels prompt her golden dreams. 

For her th' unfading rose of Eden blooms, 

And wings of seraphs shed divine perfumes. 

YOUNG. 

Let Indians, and the gay, like Indians, fond 
Of feather d fopperies, the sun adore ; 
Darkness has more divinity for me ; 
It strikes thought inward, it drives bark the sold 
To settle on herself, our point supreme. 
TJiere lies our theatre : there sits our judge. 
Darkness the curtain drops o'er life's dull scene ; 
'Tis the kind hand of Providence stretch' d out 
'Twixt man and vanity ; His reason's reign, 
And virtue's too ; these tutelary shades 
Are man's asylum /rom the tainted throng. 
Night is the good man's friend and guardian too, 
It no less rescues virtue, than inspires. 
201 



APPENDIX B. 

SWIFT. 
Wisdom is a fox, vjho, after long hunting, will at last cost you the 
pains to dig out. ' Tis a cheese, which by how much the richer has the 
thicker, the homelier, and the coarser coat ; and whereof, to a judicious 
palate, the maggots are the best. : Tis a sack posset, wherein t/ie deeper 
you go, you will find it the sweeter. But tnen, lastly, 'tis a nut, which, 
unless you choose with judgment, may cost you a tooth, and pay you with 
nothing but a worm. 

ROBERTSON. 

This great emperor, in the plenitude of his power, and in possession. 
of all the honors which can flatter the heart of man, took the extraordi- 
nary resolution to resign his kingdom ; and to withdravj entirely from 
any concern in business, or the affairs of this world, in order that he 
might spend the remainder of his days in retirement and solitude, 
Dioclesian is, perhaps, the only prince capable of holding the reins of 
government, who ever resigned them from deliberate choice, and ioho 
continued during many years to enjoy the tranquillity of retirement, 
without fetching one penitent sigh, or casting back one look of desire 
towards the power or dignity which he had abandoned. — Charles V. 

HUME. 
The beauties of her person, and graces of her air, combined to make 
her the most amiable of women ; and the charms of her address and 
conversation aided the impression which her lovely figure made on the 
heart of all beholders. Ambitious and active in her temper, yet inclined 
to cheerfulness and, society ; of a lofty spirit, constant and even vehe- 
ment in her purpose, yet politic, gentle, and affable in her demeanor, 
she seemed to partake only so much of the male virtues as to render her 
estimable without relinquishing those soft graces which compose the 
proper ornament of her sex. 

GIBBON. 

In the second century of the Christian era the empire of 'Rome com- 
prehended the fairest part of the eaith, and the most civilized portion of 
mankind. The frontiers of that extensive monarchy were guarded 
by ancient renown and disciplined valor. The gentle but powerful 
influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of 
tlie provinces. Their peaceful inhabitants enjoyed and abused the 
advantages of wealth and luxury. The image of a free constitution 
was preserved with decent reverence. 
205 1g 



APPENDIX E. 



JOHNSON. 



Of genius, that power, which constitutes a poet; that quality, with- 
out which judgment is cold and knowledge is inert ; that energy which 
collects, combines, amplifies, and animates, the superiority must, with 
some hesitation, be allowed to Dryden. It is not to be inferred that of 
this poetical vigor Pope had only a little, because Dryden had m.ore ; 
for every other writer since Milton must give place to Pope ; and even 
of Dryden it must be said, that if he has brighter paragraphs, lie has not 
better poems. 

w From the preceding instances we may form an idea 
of the power of the Saxon language, but by no means a 
just idea ; for we must not conclude that the words which 
are not Saxon could not be supplied by Saxon words. On 
the contrary, Saxon terms might be substituted for all the 
words not marked as Saxon. 

To impress this sufficiently on the mind of the reader, 
it will be necessary to show how much of our ancient 
language we have laid aside, and have suffered to become 
obsolete ; because all our writers, from Chaucer to our 
own times, have used words of foreign origin rather than 
our own. In three pages of Alfred's Orosius, I found 78 
words which have become obsolete, out of 548, or about 
one-seventh. In three pages of his Boetius I found 143 
obsolete, out of 666, or about one-fifth. In three pages of 
his Bede, I found 230 obsolete out of 969, or about one-fifth. 
The difference in the proportion between these and the 
Orosius proceeds from the latter containing many historical 
names. Perhaps we shall be near the truth if we say, as 
a general principle, that one-fifth of the Anglo-Saxon lan- 
guage has ceased to be used in modern English. This 
loss must of course be taken into account when we esti- 
mate the copiousness of our ancient language, hy consi- 
dering how much of it our English authors exhibit. "— - 
Sharon Turner, — Hist, of the Anglo- S axons , Vol. I.,App. 
r ., Chap. III. 

206 



APPENDIX C. 



u The Greeks and Romans, counting only by tens, com- 
posed their numbers from ten to twenty, with dexa, de- 
cern, ten ; evdexa, undecim, eleven; dvwdsxa, duodecim, 
twelve. The German tribes form the same numerals in a 
similar manner, except eleven and twelve, which were com- 
posed with Ger. lif; A.-S. laefan, lif, lef, I'f, in other 
dialects. But as this anomaly entered our numeral sys- 
tem in a period anterior to the history of our tongues, and 
is common to all the Germanic languages, the analogy be- 
tween the kindred dialects is not disturbed by these irregu- 
larities, but rather advanced. 

" 18. The cause of this disturbance lies in the old prac- 
tice of using both ten and twelve as fundamental numbers. 

a The advance was by ten, thus thrittig, Country Friesic 
tritich ; feow r ertig, Ab. 2, &c. ; but on arriving at sixty the 
series was finished, and another begun, denoted by prefix- 
ing hund. This second series proceeded to one hundred 
and twenty, thus: hundnigontig, ninety; hundteontig, a 
hundred; hundenlufontig, a hundred and ten; hundtwelf- 
tig, a hundred and twenty : here the second series conclud- 
ed. It thus appears that the Anglo-Saxons did not know 
our hundreds 100, as the chief division of numbers ; and, 
though they counted from ten to ten, they, at the same 
time, chose the number twelve as the basis of the chief 
divisions. As we say, 5x10 = 50; 10x10 = 100; they 
multiplied 5 and 10 by 12, and produced 60 and 120. 
When the Scandinavians adopted a hundred as a chief 
division — 100=10x10 — they still retained one hundred 
and twenty; and calling both these "numbers hundred, they 
distinguished them by the epithets little or ten hundred, 



APPENDIX. 

lili-hundrad or hundrad tiraed, and great or the twelve 
number hundred, stor-hundrade, or hundrad tolfraed. The 
Danes count to forty by tens, 'thus : tredive, thirty; fyr- 
retyve, forty; and then commence by twenties, thus: 
halvtreuiesindstyve, literally in A.-S. thridda healf sirhon 
twentig* — two twenties — and the third twenty half i. e. 
fifty. The Icelanders call 2500 half thridie thusand, — 
Dut. derdehalfduizend, i. e. two thousand, and the third 
thousand haf; firesindtyve— ; four-times twenty — eighty, and 
so on to a hundred. The Francs being a mixture of kindred 
nations from the middle of Germany, when they entered 
Gallia, partly adopted the Anglo-Saxon mode of numera- 
tion, and partly that of the Danes, and they afterwards 
translated verbally their vernacular names of the numerals 
by Latin words. From twenty to fifty it proceeds in the 
usual manner, vingt, trente, quarante, cinquante, soixante ; 
but having arrived at seventy, the same place where the 
Anglo-Saxons commenced with hund, hundseofontig, it 
uses soixante dix, quatre vingt, just as the Danes express 
eighty by firesindsty ve,/oj*r times twenty. As it appears 
that the old Germans had two fundamental numbers, ten 
and twelve, it follows that eleven and twelve are the last two 
numerals of the twelve series, and the first two in the ten 
series ; hence perhaps came the use of the termination lif 
or lef in eleven and twelve." — Bosworth, Origin and Con- 
nexion of the Germanic Tongues. 

* The ellipsis of the two twenties is supplied in the expression tw£ 
geare and thridde healf, two years and half the third year, literally in 
Frs. c. twa jier in t' tredde heal, but custom contracts it to tredde heal 
jier. Hickes compares this ellipsis with the Scotch expression, half 
ten, which is also the Dut. half tien, but. in this he is not accurate. 
The country Friesians not having this ellipsis, prove that it must be 
supplied in another way. They say, healwei tsjienen, halfway of the 
f resent hour to ten o'clock. Dr. Dorow has also fallen into the same 
mistake, p. 127. Denkmaler, I. } 2 and 3. 

208 



APPENDIX D 



ON THE STRUCTURE AND MECHANISM OF 
THE ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE. 



11 To explain the history of any language is a task peculi- 
arly difficult at this period of the world, in which we are 
so very remote from the era of its original construction. 

We have, as yet, witnessed no people in the act of 
forming their language, and cannot, therefore, from expe- 
rience, demonstrate the simple elements from which a 
lano-uao-e begins, nor the additional organization which it 
gradually receives. The languages of highly civilized peo- 
ple,' which are those that we are most conversant with, are 
in a state very unlike their ancient tongues. Many words 
have been added to them from other languages ; many 
have deviated into meanings very different from their 
primitive significations ; many have been so altered by the 
change of pronunciation and orthography, as scarcely to 
bear any resemblance to their ancient forms. The abbre- 
viations of language, which have been usually called its 
articles, pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions and interjec- 
tions ; the inflections of its verbs, the declensions of its 
nouns, and the very form of its syntax, have also under- 
gone so many alterations from the caprice of human usage, 
that it is impossible to discern anything of the mechanism 
of a language, but by ascending from its present state to its 
more ancient form. 

The Anglo-Saxon is one of those ancient languages to 
which we may successfully refer, in our inquiries how 
language has been constructed. 
209 lg* 



APPENDIX D. 

As we have not had the experience of any people 
forming a language, we cannot attain to a knowledge of its 
mechanism in any other way than by analysing it ; by ar- 
ranging its words into their classes, and by tracing these to 
their elementary sources. We shall perhaps be unable to 
discover the original words with which the language be- 
gan, but we may hope to trace the progress of its forma- 
tion, and some of the principles on which that progress has 
been made. In this inquiry ] shall follow the steps of the 
author of the Diversions of Purley, and build upon his 
foundation, because I think that his book has presented to 
us the key to that mechanism which w T e have so long ad- 
mired, so fruitlessly examined, and so little understood. 

Words have been divided into nine classes : the article., 
the substantive or noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the 
verb, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the 
interjection. 

Under these classes all the Saxon words may be ar- 
ranged, although not with that scientific precision with 
which the classifications of natural history have been made. 
Mr. Tooke has asserted, that in all languages there are 
only two sorts of words necessary for the communication 
of our thoughts, and therefore only two parts of speech, 
the noun and the verb, and that the others are the abbre- 
viations of these. 

But if the noun and the verb be only used, they will 
serve not so much to impart our meaning, as to indicate 
it. These will suffice to express simple substances or 
facts, and simple motions of nature or man ; but will do by 
themselves little else. All the connexions, references, 
distinctions, limitations, applications, contrasts, relations, 
and refinements of thought and feeling — and therefore most 
of what a cultivated people wish to express by language, 
cannot be conveyed without the other essential abbrevia- 

210 



AFFENDIX D. 

tions — and therefore all nations have been compelled, as 
occasions occurred, as wants increased, and as thought 
evolved, to invent or adopt them, till all that were neces- 
sary became naturalized in the language. 

That nouns and verbs are the most essential and primi- 
tive words of language, and that all others have been 
formed from them, are universal facts, which after reading 
the Diversions of Purley, and tracing in other languages 
the application of the principles there maintained, no en- 
lightened philologist will now deny. But though this is 
true as to the origin of these parts of speech, it may be 
questioned whether the names established by conventional 
use may not be still properly retained, because the words 
now classed as conjunctions, prepositions, etc., though 
originally verbs, are not verbs at present, but have been 
long separated from their verbal parents, and have become 
distinct parts of our grammatical syntax. 

That the conjunctions, the prepositions, the adverbs, and 
the interjections of our language, have been made from our 
verbs and nouns, Mr. Tooke has satisfactorily shown ; and 
with equal truth he has affirmed, that articles and pronouns 
have proceeded from the same source. I have pursued 
his inquiries through the Saxon and other languages, and 
am satisfied that the same may be affirmed of adjectives. 
Nouns and verbs are the parents of all the rest of lan- 
guage ; and it can be proved in the Anglo-Saxon, as in 
other tongues, that of these the nouns are the ancient and 
primitive stock from which all other words have branched 
and vegetated." 



" The Anglo-Saxon verbs have essentially contributed 
to form those parts of speech which Mr. Tooke has de- 
nominated the abbreviations of language. The verbs, 
211 



APPENDIX D. 



however, are not themselves the primitive words of our 
language. They are all in a state of composition. They 
are like the secondary mountains of the earth — they have 
been formed posterior to the aucient bulwarks of human 
speech, which are the nouns — I mean of course those 
nouns which are in their elementary state. 

In some languages, as in the Hebrew, the verbs are very 
often the nouns applied unaltered to a verbal signification. 
We have examples of this sort of verbs in our English 
words, love, hate, fear, hope, dream, sleep, etc. These 
words are nouns, and are also used as verbs. Of verbs 
thus made by the simple application of nouns in a verbal 
form, the Anglo-Saxon gives few examples. 

Almost all its other verbs are nouns with a final syllable 
added, and this final syllable is a word expressive of mo- 
tion, or action, or possession. 

To show this fact, we will take some of the Anglo- 
Saxon verbs : 

Bad a pledge. 



baer a bier. 
baeth a bath. 
bat a chib. 
bebod a command. 
bidde a prayer. 
big a crown. 
bliss joy. 
blostm a flower. 
blot a sacrifice. 
bod an edict. 
borg a loan. 
bridl a bridle. 
broc misery. 
bye a habitation 
byseg business. 
212 



bad-ian to pledge. 
baer-an to carry. 
baeth-ian to wash. 
beat-an to beat. 
bebod-an to command. 
bidd-an to pray. 
big-an to bend. 
bliss-ian to rejoice. 
blostm-ian to blossom. 
blot-an to sacrifice. 
bod-ian to proclaim. 
borg-ian to lend. 
bridl -ian to bridle. 
broc-ian to afflict. 
by-an to inhabit. 
bysg-ian to be busy. 



APPENDIX D. 



bysmr contumely. 
bytla a builder. 
car care, 
ceap cattle. 
cele cold. 
cerre a bending. 
cid strife. 
cnyt a /mo?, 
comp a battle. 
craeft art. 
curs a curse. 
cwid a saying. 
cyrm a ??oise. 
cyth knowledge. 
cos a &?ss. 
dael a p«r/. 
daeg day. 
deaeg color. 



bysmr-ian to deride. 
bytl-ian to build. 
car-ian to be anxious. 
ceap-ian to buy. 
cel-an to cool, 
cerr-an to return. 
cid-an to quarrel. 
cnytt-an to tie. 
comp-ian to fight. 
craeft-an to build. 
curs-ian to curse. 
cwydd-ian to say. 
cyrm-an to cry out. 
cyth-an to make known. 
coss-an to kiss. 
dael-an to divide. 
daeg-ian to shine. 
deag-an to tinge. 



If we go through all the alphabet, we shall find that 
most of the verbs are composed of a noun, and the sylla- 
bles an, ian, or gan. Of these additional syllables, gan is 
the verb of motion, to go, or the verb agan to possess ; and 
an seems sometimes the abbreviation of anan to give, and 
sometimes of the verbs gan and agan. Thus deagan, to 
tinge, appears to me deag-an, to give a color ; daelan, to 
divide, dael-an, to give a part ; cossan, to kiss, cos-an, to 
give a kiss ; cursian, to curse, cursan, to give a curse ; 
while we may presume that carian, to be anxious, is car- 
agan, to have care ; blostmian, to blossom, is blostm-agan, 
to have a flower ; byan, to inhabit, is by-agan, to have a 
habitation. We may also say that cidan, to quarrel, is 
the abbreviation of cid-gan, to go to quarrel ; baethian, 
to wash, is baeth-gan, to go to a bath ; biddan, to pray, is 
bidde-gan, to go to pray. The Gothic to pray is bidgan. 

213 



APPENDIX D. 

That the words gan, or agan, have been abbreviated or 
softened into an, or ian, can be proved from several verbs. 
Thus fylgan, or filigian, to follow, is also filian. Thus 
rleogan, to fly, becomes fleon and flion. So forhtigan, to 
be afraid, has become also forhtian. So fundigan has be- 
come fundian ; gethyldgian, gethyldian ; fengan, foan,and 
fon ; and teogan, teon. The examples of th.is change are 
innumerable. 

This abbreviation is also proved by many of the parti- 
ciples of the abbreviated verbs ending in gend, thus show- 
ing the original infinitive to have been gen ; as frefrian, to 
comfort, has its participle frefergend ; fremian, to profit, 
freomigend ; fulian, has fuligend ; gaemnian, gaemnigend, 
etc. 

Many verbs are composed of the terminations above 
mentioned, and of words which exist in the Anglo-Saxon, 
not as nouns, but as adjectives, and of some words which 
are not to be met with in the Anglo-Saxon, either as nouns 
or adjectives. But so true is the principle, that, nouns 
were the primitive words of these verbs, and that verbs 
are but the nouns with the additional final syllables, that 
we shall very frequently find the noun we search for exist- 
ing in the state of a noun in some of those languages which 
have a close affinity with the Anglo-Saxon. This lan- 
guage meets our eye in a very advanced state, and 
.therefore, when we decompose it, we cannot expect to 
meet in itself all its elements. Many of its elements had 
dropped out of its vocabulary at that period wherein we 
find it, just as in modern English we have dropped a great 
number of words of our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. In this 
treatise, which the necessary limits of my publication com- 
pel me to make very concise, I can only be expected to 
give a few instances. 

Beran, is to bring forth, or produce ; there is no primi- 

214 



Ai>PEi\DlX D. 

tive noun answering to this verb in the Anglo-Saxon, but 
there is in the Franco-theotisc, where we find bar is fruit, 
or whatever the earth produces ; ber-an is therefore to 
give fruit or to produce. So maersian, to celebrate, is 
from segan, to speak, and some noun from which the adjec- 
tive maera, illustrious, had been formed. The noun is not 
in the Saxon, but it is in the Franco-theotisc, where maera 
is fame, or rumor ; therefore, maersian, to celebrate a per- 
son, is mera-segan, to speak his fame. I have observed 
many examples of this sort. 

In searching; for the original nouns from which verbs 
have been formed, we must always consider if the verb we 
are inquiring about be a primitive verb or a secondary 
verb, containing either of the prefixes a, be, ge, for, in, on, 
to, with, etc., etc. In these cases we must strip the verb 
of its prefix, and examine its derivation under its earlier 
form. The verbs with a prefix are obviously of later 
origin than the verbs to which the prefix has not been 
applied. 

Sometimes the verb consists of two verbs put together, 
as gan-gan, to go ; so for-letan, to dismiss or leave, is 
composed of two verbs, faran, to go, laetan, to let or suf- 
fer, and is literally to let go. 

The Anglo-Saxon nouns are not all of the same anti- 
quity ; some are the primitive words of the language from 
which every other has branched, but some are of later date." 
*.##'#*■■*-•*'"*..-**■'•# 

" The primitive nouns expressing sensible objects, hav- 
ing been formed, they were multiplied by combinations 
with each other. They were then applied to express 
ideas more abstracted. By adding to them a few expres- 
sive syllables, the numerous classes of verbs and adjectives 
arose ; and from these again other nouns and adjectives 
were formed. The nouns and verbs were then abbrevi- 

215 



APPENDIX D. 

ated and adapted into conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs, 
and interjections. The pronouns were soon made from a 
sense of their convenience ; and out of them came the 
articles. To illustrate these principles, from the various 
languages which I have examined, would expand these few 
pages into a volume, and would be therefore improper ; 
but I can recommend the subject to the attention of the 
philological student, with every assurance of a successful 
research. 

The multiplication of language by the metaphorical ap- 
plication of nouns to express other nouns, or to signify 
adjectives, may be observed in all languages. Thus, 
beorhtj light, was applied to express bright, shining, and 
illustrious. So deop, the sea, was applied to express 
depth. 

As a specimen how the Anglo-Saxon language has been 
formed from the multiplication of simple words, I will 
show the long train of words which have been formed 
from a few primitive words. I select four of the words 
applicable to the mind. The numerous terms formed from 
them will illustrate the preceding observations on the me- 
chanism of the language. 

ANCIENT NOUN : 

Hyge or hige mind or thought. 

Secondary meaning : care, diligence, study. 

Hoga care. 

Hogu care, industry, effort. 

Adjectives, being the noun so applied : 
Hige diligent, studious, attentive. 
Hoga prudent, solicitous. 

Verbs from the noun : 

Hogian, to meditate, to study, to think, to be wise, to be 
anxious : and hence to groan. 

216 



APPENDIX D. 

tt I to study, to be solicitous, to endeavour. 

Hyggan 5 *' 

The verb, by use, having gained new shades of meaning 
and applications, we meet with it again ; as, 
Hicgan ) to study, to explore, to seek vehemently, to en- 
Hycgan 5 deavour, to struggle. 
Secondary noun, derived from this verb : 
Hogung care, effort, endeavour. 

Secondary nouns compounded of the ancient noun and 

another : 

Higecraeft acuteness of mind. 

Higeleast negligence, carelessness. 

Higesorga anxieties, mental griefs. 

Hogascip ) j 
tt } prudence. 

Hogoscip ) 

Hygeleast folly, madness, scurrility. 

Hygesceaft the mind or thought. 

Adjectives composed of the ancient noun and a meaning 
word: 
Hygeleas void of mind, foolish. 

xiygerot / magnanimous, excellent in mind. 
Higerof ) 

Hogfeast ? , . 
TT /. \ prudent. 
Hogofeast ) 

Hogfull anxious, full of care. 

Higefrod wise, prudent in mind. 

Higeleas negligent, incurious. 

Higestrang strong in mind. 

Higethancol cautious, provident, thoughtful. 

Adverbs from the adjective : 

Higeleaslice negligently, incuriously. 
Hogfullice anxiously. 
317 19 



APPENDIX D. 

ANCIENT NOUN : 

Mod the mind ; also passion and irritability. 

Verbs : 

Modian } to be high minded. 
Modigan > to rage. 
Modgian ) to swell. 

Adjectives composed of the noun and another word or 
syllable : 

Modig ) irritable. 
Modeg ) angry, proud. 
Modful full. of mind, irritable. 
Modga elated, proud, distinguished. 
Modhwata fervent in mind. 
Modilic magnanimous. 
Modleas meek-minded, pusillanimous. 
Modstathol firm-minded. 
Modthwer patient in mind, meek, mild. 

Secondary nouns composed of the ancient noun and some 

other : 

Modgethanc thoughts of the mind, council. 

Modgethoht strength oj mind, reasoning. 

Modgewinne conflicts of mind. 

Modesmynla the affections of the mind, the inclinations. 

Modhete heat of mind — anger. 

Modleaste folly, pusillanimity, slothfulness . 

Modnesse pride. 

Modsefa the intellect, sensation, intelligence. 

Modsorg grief of mind. 
Secondary nouns of still later origin, having been formed 

after the adjectives, and composed of an adjective and 

another noun : 

Modignesse ) 

Modinesse $ moodine ss, pride, animosity. 

218 



APPENDIX D. 

Modseocnesse sickness of mind. 
Modstatholnysse firmness of mind, fortitude. 
Modsumnesse concord. 
Modthaernesse patience, meekness. 
Adverb formed from the adjective : 
Modiglice proudly, angrily. 

ANCIENT NOUN : 

Wit ) 

~ . > the mind, qenius, the intellect, the sense. 

Gewit ) r *\ ' 

Secondary meaning : wisdom, prudence. 
Noun applied as an adjective : 

Wita > . j.jj. j 
TXT- > wise, skiljul. 
Wite ) 

Gewita conscious ; hence a witness. 
Verbs formed from the noun : 

Witan to know, to perceive. 

Gewitan to understand. 

Witegian to prophesy. 
Adjectives composed of the ancient noun, and an addi- 
tional syllable, or word : 

Wittig wise, skilled, ingenious, prudent. 

Gewitig knowing, wise, intelligent. 

Gewitleas ignorant, foolish. 

Gewittig intelligent, conscious. 

Gewitscoc ill in mind, demoniac. 

Witol, wittol wise, knowing. 
Secondary nouns formed of the ancient noun and another 

noun : 

Witedom the knovjledge of judgment, prediction. 

Witega a prophet. 

Witegung prophecy. 

Witesaga a prophet. 

Gewitleast folly, madness. 

219 



APPENDIX D. 

Gewitloca the mind. 

Gewitness witness. 

Gewitscipe witness. 

Witeclofe trifler. 

Witword the answer of the wise. 
Nouns of more recent date, having been formed out of 

the adjectives : 

Gewitseocness insanity. 

Witigdom knowledge, wisdom, prescience. 

Witolnesse knowledge, wisdom. 
Secondary adjective, or one formed upon the secondary 

noun : 

Witedomlic prophetical. 
Conjunctions : 

Witedlic ) . _ _ . , 
Witod[lc \™&e<l>f<>r,but 9 to-tmt. 

Adverbs formed from participles and adjectives : 

Witendlice ) 7 . , 
knowingly. 



Wittiglice 

OU! 

the mind, thought, opinion. 



ANCIENT NOUN : 

Gethanc 

Gethonc 

Thane ) _ ... _ 

~, > the will, thought. 

Secondary meaning : an act of the will, or thanks. 

Thing ) 

__ , , > a council. 

Gething ) 

And from the consequence conferred by sitting at the 

council, came 

Gethincth, honor, dignity. 
Verbs formed from the noun : 

Thincan ) to think) to conceive, to feel, to reason, to con- 

Thencan S sider. 



APPENDIX D. 

Gethencan ) t0 tUnk 

Gethengcan ) 

Thancian > (0 <Wc 

Gethancian ) 

Thingan to address, to speak, to supplicate. 

Gethancmetan to consider. 

Adjectives formed from the ancient noun : 

^ > thoughtful, meditating, cautious. 

Gethancol mindful. 
Thancful thankful, ingenious, content. 
Thancwurth grateful. 
Thancolmod provident, wise. 

Secondary nouns formed from the verb : 

Thoht >,.... # . .. 
S thinking, thought. 

Getheaht council. 
Getheahtere counsellor 
Thancung thanking. 
Thancmetuncg deliberation. 

Secondary verb, from one of these secondary nouns : 
Getheahtian to consult. 

More recent noun, formed from the secondary verb : 

Getheahting council, consultation. 
Another secondary verb : 

Ymbethencan to think about anything. 

Adjective from a secondary verb : 
Getheatendlic consulting. 

Adverb from one of the adjectives : 
Thancwurthlice gratefully. 

These specimens will evince to the observing eye how 

221 19* 



APPENDIX D. 

the Anglo-Saxon language has been formed •, and they 
also indicate that it had become very far removed from a 
rude state of speech. These derivative compounds imply 
much cultivation and exercise, and a considerable portion 
of mental discrimination. It is, indeed, in such an ad- 
vanced state, that novels, moral essays, dramas, and the 
poetry of nature and feeling might be written in pure 
Anglo-Saxon, without any perceptible deficiency of appro- 
priate terms." — Sharon Turner, — Hist, of the Anglo- 
Saxons, Vol. II. , App. /., Chap. 1. 

We have given these extracts without endorsing, as 
will have been perceived to a certain extent, all the opi- 
nions advanced by the writer, differing, as we do in our 
philological principles, from the Author of the Diversions 
of Purley, and others of the late English School. Our 
views, so far as called forth by the language w T ith which 
we have been occupied, will appear more fully, and at the 
same time be exemplified, in another volume now in press, 
and also, at some future day, in a less compendious Gram- 
mar of the Anglo-Saxon, our expressive and noble an- 
cestral tongue 

THE END. 



155 Broadway, New York. 142 Strand, London 

Of late firm of Wilkt & Putnam. 



New Works in Press, 

Or recently published, by 

GEORGE P. PUTNAM, 

155 Broadway, New York. 

G. P. PUTNAM has the pleasure of announcing that, agreeably to his contract with the 
distinguished author, he has now in the course of publication 

A new, uniform, and complete edition 

OF THE 

Works of Washington Irving, 

Revised and enlarged by the Author, 

In Twelve Elegant Duodecimo Volumes, 
Beautifully printed with new type, and on superior paper, made expressly for the purpose. 

The first volume of the Series will be 

The Sketch-Book, 

complete in one volume, 
which will be ready on the first day of September. 

Knickerbocker's History of New York, 

with revisions and copious additions, 
will be published on the 1st of October. 

The Life and Voyages of Columbus, 

Vol. I. on the 1st of November, 
and the succeeding volumes will be issued on the first day of each month until com- 
pleted ;— as follows : 

The Sketch-Book, in one volume. The Crayon Miscellany, in one 
Knickerbocker's New York, in one ) ' vol. — Abbotsford, JVewstead, 

volume. ) The Prairies, 8fc. 

Tales of a Traveller, in one volume. ? Life and Voyages of Columbus, 
Bracebridge Hall, in one volume. ( and The Companions of Co- 
The Conquest of Grenada, in one S lumbus, 2 vols. 

volume. ) Adventures of Captain Bonneville, 

The Alhambra, in one volume. ) one vol. 

The Spanish Legends, in one vol. c Astoria, one volume. 

The Illustrated Sketch-Book. 

In October will be published, 

The Sketch-Book. 
By Washington Irving. 

One volume, square octavo. 
Illustrated with a series of highly-finished Engravings on wood, from Designs by Darley 
and others, engraved in the best style by Childs, Herrick, &c. This edition will be printed 
on paper of the finest quality, similar in size and style to the new edition of " Halleck's 
Poems." It is intended that the illustrations shall be superior to any engravings on wood 
yet produced in this country, and that the mechanical execution of the volume, altogether, 
shall be worthy of the author's reputation. It will form an elegant and appropriate gift- 
book for all seasons. 



New Works published by- 



The Illustrated Knickerbocker, 

With a series of Original Designs, in one vol., octavo, is also in preparation. 

Mr. Putnam has also the honor to announce ih it he will publish at intervals (in coa- 
nexion, and uniform wi'h the other collected writings;, 

Mr, living's New Works, 

now nearly ready for the press: including 

The Life of Mohammed, 

The Life of Washington, 

New volumes of Miscellanies, Biographies, &c. 

*>*This being the first hi rform nnd complete edition of Mr. living's works, either in this 
country or in Europe, the publisher confidently believes that the undertaking will meet 
with a prompt and cordial response To say this, is perhaps superfluous and impertinent; 
for it is a truism that no JJmerican book-case (itot to say library) can be well filled wilhout 
the works of Washiugtun Irving; while the English language itself comprises no purer 
xuodtls of composition. 

G. P. Putnam has aTso made arrangements for the early commencement of new works 
or new editions of the works of 

Miss C. M. Sedgewick, t Mary Howitt, 

Charles Fenno Huffman, i W M. Thackeray, 

George H C a Inert, i Thos. Hood, 

J. Bayard Taylor, I Leigh Hunt, 

S. Wells Williams, I Thomas Carlyle, 

A. J. Downing, < jR Monckton Milnes* 

Prof A Gray, < Mrs. Jameson, 

Mrs E Oa/ees Smith, \ Charles Lamb, 

Mrs. C. M. Kirk land, Elliot Warhurton. 

The following new works are now ready, or will be published this season : 

I. 

Sophisms of the Protective Policy. 

Translated from the French of F. Bastiat. With an introduction by Francis Lieber, LL.D. 
Prolessor in South Carolina College, Editor of the Encyclopaedia Americana, &.c. 12mo. 

II. 

Grecian and Roman Mythology: 

With original illustrations. Ad ipted for the use of Universities and High Schools, and fos 
popular reading. By M A. Dwight. With an introduction by Tayler Lewis, Professor of 
Greek, University of New York. !2mo. (f m 1st September ) 

Also a fine edition in octavo, with illustrations. 

*^* This work has lieen prepared with great care illustrated with 20 effective outline 
drawings, and is designed to treat the subject. in an original, comprehensive, and unex- 
ceptionable manner, so as to fi;l the place a* a text book which is yet unsupplied ; while 
it will also be an attractive and readable table hook for general use. It will be at once 
introduced as a ttxt book in the University of New York and other colleges and schools* 

III. 

Eureka: a Prose Poem. 

Or the Physical and Metaphysical Universe. 
By Edgar A. Poe, Esq. _ Handsomely printed. 12mo, Cloth- 



■G. P. Putnam, 155 Broadway, New York. 



®l)£ 33ook of ?Daintn SJnrice*^ 

*:j.*This new anr} unique volume, superbly illuminated by M ipleson, and comprising 
original articles by distinguished writers, will be the most elegant and recherche book of 
the kind ever produced in this country. It will be ready in October. 

A new and superior edition of the PEARLS OF AMERICAN POETRY will also be 
published this season. 

v. 
Oriental Life Illustrated. 

Being a new edition of Eothen, or Traces of Travel in the East. With fine illustrations 

on Steel. 

vr. 

Dr. Klipstein's Anglo-Saxon Course 

of Study. 

In uniform 12mo. volumes, 
i. 

A Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language. By Louis F. Klipstein, AA. LL.M. and 
PH.D., of the University of Giessen. 

***Thi< work recommend-; itself particularly to the attention of every American 
student who " glories in'hh A glo-Saxon descent*' or Teutonic lineage, as well as of all 
who desire an acquaintance with a I mgu ge which lies as the found ition of the English, 
and throws a light upon its Ue nents and structure, derivable from no other source Of 
the importance and interesting n >ture of the study there cm be no doubt, and we agree 
with those who think tint the time is corning when it will be considered - utterly disgrace- 
ful for any well bred Englishnnn or Americ n " to hive neglected it. With regard to the 
merits of Dr. Klipstein's Grimm ir, we will only say. ih i* it has been already adopted as 
a text-book in some of the leading Institutions of our country. 
[The following are also in press.] 
ii. 
Analecta Anglo Snxonica, with an Introductory Ethnographical Essay, Copious Notes, Cri- 
tical and Expl matory, and a Glossary in which are shown the Indo-Germanic and other 
Affinities of tue Language. By the same. 

In this work appear the fruits of considerable research, and, we may add, learning. 
The Ethnology of Europe is surciiicti' , but . learly illustrated, the Anglo-Saxon language 
completely a inkysed. revealing the initio t harmony of combination from its eleme-nls. its 
forms and root; compared with those in kindred di 'leets and cognate tongues its po Uion 
in the Teu'onic family and Indo-Germanic range established, and thegenui e relation of the 
English to its great parent properly set forth To those who are fond of the comparative 
study of language, the Glossary will prove an invaluable aid, apart from its particular 
object. 

in. 
Nitale Sancti Gregorii Papae— /E'frie's Homily on the Birthday of St. Gregory, and Col- 
lateral Extr cts from King Alfred's ver inn of Brde's Kccle<ia.stic«l History and the 
Saxon Chronicle, with a full rendering into English, Notes Critical and Explanatory, 
and an Index of Words. By the same. 

IV. 

Extracts from the Anglo S lxon-Gospels, a Portion of the Anglo-Saxon Paraphrase of the 
Book of P<alms. and oth-r Sel. ctions of a Sacn-d Order in the *ame Language, with a 
Translation into English, and Notes Critical and Explanatory. By the same. 

These two works are prepared in such a way as in them elves, with the aid of the 
Grammar to afford every facility to the Anglo-Saxon Student. ./E.fric'- Homily is remarka- 
ble for beauty of composition, and interesting as setting forth Augustine's Mission to the 
" Land of the Angles." 

v. 
Tha Halgan Godspel on Englisc — the Anglo-Saxon Version of the Holy Gospels. Edited 
by Benj imin Thorpe, F.S.A. Rrprivted by the same Nuw ready. 
This, the earliest ' E glish " version of the Four G spels. will be found interesting to 
the an'iquarian anil theologian, as we I as serviceable to the student in his investigations 
of the language The Text, besdes the usuil but unbroken division, appears, with the 
Rubrics, as read in the early Anglican Church. 



New Works published by — 



VII. 

Study of. Modern Languages. 

Part First; French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, German, and English. 

By L. F. Klipstein, AA. LL.M. and Ph. D. One Vol. Imperial 8vo. 75 cents. 

This work, which is intended equally for the simultaneous and the separate study of the 
languages that it sets forth, and which is adapted as well for the native of Germany, 
France, Italy, Spain, or Portugal, as for him to whom English is vernacular, in the acquire- 
ment of any one of the other tongues besides his own, will be found an acceptable manual 
not only to the tyro, but to the more advanced scholar. The reading portion of the matter 
is interesting, and the text in every case remarkably correct, while the Elementary Phrases, 
forms of Cards, Letters, Bills of Exchange, Promissory Notes, Receipts, &.C., in the six 
languages, constitute what has long been a desideratum from the America! press. For 
the comparative study of the Romanic tongues the work affords unusual facilities. 

vin. 
Pedestrian Tour in Europe. 

Views a-Foot ; or Europe seen with Knapsack and Staff' 

By J. Bayard Taylor. 

A new edition with an additional chapter, and a sketch of the author in pedestrian cos- 
tume, from a drawing by T. Buchanan Read. 12mo. Cloth. 

IX. 

The Third Edition of 

The Middle Kingdom. 

A SURVEY OF THE 

GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT, EDUCATION, SOCIAL LIFE, ARTS, 
RELIGION, etc., 

Of the Chinese Empire 

AND ITS INHABITANTS. 

With a New Map of the Empire, and Illustrations, principally engraved by J. W. Orr. 

BY S. WELLS WILLIAMS. 

Two Vols. 8vo. Half morocco, gilt tops, §3. Now ready. 

"What personal observation did not supply has been industriously and ably supplied 
from other sources. This will probably take the place of the previous accounts' of the 
Chinese Empire, as more full and accurate than they." — Evening Post. 

"We are very greatly mistaken, or the circulation of these volumes will raise very 
much the inhabitants of the Middle Kingdom in the respect of our countrymen." — N. Y. 
Recorder. 

" We do not think the man is living who is better qualified than Mr. Williams to make 
a book on China, and he has produced a w r ork which will be of standard authority as refer- 
ence." — N. Y. Observer. 

" The work before us is full of the information required, interspersed with numerous 
amusing sketches of the peculiar manners of this people. No one was more qualified to 
write a book of this sort than the author ; and all who read it will be highly interested, 
and will learn more of the Celestials from it, than he can anywhere else." — Christian 
Advocate <$- Journal. 

X. 

A New Edition of 

Clarke's Shakspeare Concordance. 

A Complete Concordance to Shakspeare : being a Verba) Index to ALL the PASSAGES 
in the Dramatic Works of the Poet. By Mrs. Cowden Clarke. 
" Order gave each thing view." 

One large Vol. comprising 2560 closely printed columns, — (indicating every word and 
passage in Shakspeare's Works). Price $6. Cloth. 

"The result of sixteen years of untiring labor. The different editions of Shakspeare 
have been carefully collated by the compiler, and every possible means taken to insure 
the correctness of the work. As it now stands, a person can find a particular passage in 
Shakspeare by simply remembering one word of it, and is also referred to the act and scene 



— G. P. Putnam, 155 Broadway, New York. 5 

of the play in which it occurs. As a mere dictionary of Shakspearian language and 
phrases, it is of great value; but it is also a dictionary of his thoughts and imaginations. 
It altogether supersedes the volumes of Twiss and Ayscough, and should be on every 
student's shelves " — Boston Courier. 

*** This extraordinary work is printed in London and the price there at present is 
j£2 5s. Od. or about $12 A large part of the edition having been purchased for this market, 
it is furnished here for the very low price of $6, bound in cloth. 

Also — By same Author. 

The Book of Shakspeare Proverbs. 

18mo. 75 cts. 



Dr. Lieber's Poetical Address to the American Republic. 
In a few days in a neat volume 3 

The Wests 

A Metrical Epistle. 
By Francis Lieber. 

■*«* Dr. Lieber, the distinguished Professor of Political Economy in South Carolina Col- 
lege, Author of -'Political Ethics," &x.. has just sailed for his native country— Germany— 
with the view of aiding in the great cause of Constitutional and Rational Freedom. This 
little volume proves that h« has well studied that subject (luring his long residence in this 
tris adopted country —and his able and valuable opinions on American Society and Progress, 
carry with them a peculiar interest at this time. 

NEW AND IMPROVED EDITIONS 

Of the following works are novo ready or will shortly be published. 

JDowning's Landscape Gardening and Rural Architecture 3d edition, revised. 

I) owning' 's Fruit and Fruit Trees of America. The second illustrated edition. Wifk 
70 plates, carefully and accurately colored. Royal 8vo. 

Downing' 's Cottage Residences. Illustrated new edition. 1 vol. 8vo. (Mow ready.) 

Goldsmith's Vicar of IVakefield. Very neatly printed. 

The same, wi + h illustrations designed by Mulready. Ele- 
gantly bound gilt edges. 

Lamb's Essays of Elia. 

Warburtons Crescent and the Cross 4 or Romance and Realities 
of Eastern Travel. 

Ford's Spaniards and their Country. *** Washington Irving, > bound in green doth 
warmly commends this book. I new style and at lower 

Eothen. (" The best book of Eastern traveL"J | P rice - 

Leigh Hunt's Imagination and Fancy. J 

Leigh Hunt's Italian Poets. | 

Fouque's Undine and Sintram. | 

Peacock's Headlong Hall, and Nightmare Abbes. j 

MRS. JAMESON'S CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMEN— Moral, Poetical, ami 
Historical. Illustrated with 12 beautiful Engravings of Shakspeare's Female 
Characters, engraved by Heath and others. A new and improved edition. Elegantly 
hound Saxony gilt, royal octavo. 

THE HEROINES OF SHAKSPEARE. Comprising 45 highly-finished Engravings, 
from drawings by the best artists, illustrating the female characters in the works of 
the great poet. Royal 8vo. Elegantly bound. A few copies exquisitely colored. 
N. B. These beautiful volumes, attractive and valuable at all seasons, will be ready in 

a new style for the autumn season. 



Each complete in one 
volume, very neatly 



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Ancient Moral Tales, from the Gesta Romanorum, &c. 1 

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w A quiet humor, i quaintness and terseness of style, will strongly recommend them.' 7 
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Direction of the "Smithsonian Institution." Imperial 4to. with Illustrations. (la 
preparation.) 

This work wiTt contain nnmerons and valuable illustrations, including two perspective 
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results of a research under the auspices of the Institution to test the properties of the 
most important building materials throughout the United States. 

Bartlett. — An Elementary Treatise on Optics. By W. H. C. 

Bartlett, A.M , Professor at West Point. 8vo. cloth, $2. 

Bastiat. — Sophisms of the Protective Policy. Translated from 

the French of F Bastiat. With an Introduction, by Francis Lieber, L.L.D., Professor 
in South Carolina College, Editor of the Encyclopedia Americana, &c , &c. 12mo. 

Bibliotheca Sacra and Theological Review. Conducted by 

B. B.. Edwards and E. A. Park, Professors at Andover, with the Special Aid of Dr. 
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Bull. — Hints to Mothers for the Management of Health during 

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my Literary Life and Opinions. By Sunuel Taylor Coleridge. From the 2d London 
edition, Edited by H. N. Coleridge. 2 vols. 12mo. green cloth. 

Cortez. — Letters and Despatches of Hernando Cortez. Trans- 
lated by Hon. George Folsom. 1 vol. 8vo. SI 25. 

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De Hart. — Observations on Military Law, and the Constitution 

and Practice of Courts Martial ; with a Summary of the Law of Evidence. By William 
C. De Hart. 8vo. law sheep, $3. 

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his Correspondence. By his Grandson, William A. Duer, LL.D. 8vo. cloth, $1 50. 

" It consists mainly of letters or extracts written by or to the illustrious subject, whose 
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memory of a faithful and self-denying Patriot."— Tribune. 

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trations. Adapted for the Use of Universities and High Schools, and for Popular Read- 
ing. By M. A. Dwight. With an Introduction by Tayler Lewis, Professor of Greek, 
University of New York. 12mo. [In September. 
Also a fine edition in octavo, with Illustrations. 

*** This work has been prepared with great care, illustrated with twenty effective 
outline drawings, and is designed to treat the subject in an original, comprehensive, and 
unexceptionable manner, so as to fill the place as a text-book which is yet unsupplied ; 
while it will also be an attractive and readable table-book for general use. It will be at 
once introduced as a text-book in the University of New York, and other colleges and 
schools. 

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1 vol. 12mo. green cloth. 

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Hunt. — Stories from the Italian Poets : being a Summary in 

Prose of the Poems of Dante, Pulci, Boiardo, Aristo, and Tasso ; with Comments through- 
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Authors. By Leigh Hunt. 12mo. cloth. 

The same, fancy gilt. 

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10 Recent Publications — 

Irving. — Works of Washington Irving ; Revised and Enlarged 

by the Author. In twelve elegant duodecimo volumes, beautifully printed with new 
type, and on superior piper, made expressly for the purpose, and bound in cloth. 
As follows : — 



The Crayon Miscellany, in one 

volume. Abbotsl'ord, Newstead, 
The Prairies, &C 

The Spanish Legends, in one vol. 

The Life and Voyages of Columbus, 
and The Companions of Colum- 
bus, in two volumes. 

Adventures of Capt. Bonneville, in 
one volume. 



The Sketch-Book, in one volume. 
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volume. 
Tales of a Traveller, in one vol. 
Bracebridge Hall, in one volume. 
The Conquest of Grenada, in one 

volume. 
The Alhambra, in one volume. 
Astoria, in one volume. 

(Now publishing.) 

Irving. — The Sketch-Book. By Washington Irving. Complete 

in one volume, I2mo. cloth. In September. 

Irving. — The Illustrated Sketch-Book. By Washington Irving. 

In October will be published, The Sketch-Book, by Washington Irving, one vol. square 
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edition will be printed on paper of the finest quality, similar in size and style to the new 
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Irving.— Knickerbocker's History of New York. By Washing- 
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October. 

Irving. — The Illustrated Knickerbocker; with a series of origi- 
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ration. 

Irving.- — The Life and Voyages of Columbus. By Washington 

Irving. Vol. I. on the 1st of November. 
The succeeding volumes will be issued on the first day of each month until completed. 

Jameson. — Characteristics of Women. By Mrs. Jameson. 

Illustrated with 12 elegant steel-plate engravings. 1 large vol. royal 8vo. richly gilt. 

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These portraits illustrate the following class of Shakspeare's characters, as arranged by 
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" 1st. Characters of Intellect. 

"2d. Characters of Imagination and Fancy. 

"'3d. Characters of the Affections. 

"4th. Historical Characters. 

"They are, in truth, admirable expositions of Shakspeare's matchless creations, and 
form, in the elegant edition of the American publishers, one of the most appropriate 
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Keats. — The Poetical Works of John Keats. 1 vol. 12mo. 

cloth. 

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II. 

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III. 

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IV. 

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12 Recent Publications — 

"Modern Painters. By a Graduate of Oxford. 12mo. cloth, 

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Nordheimer. — A Critical Grammar of the Hebrew Language. 

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Patrick, Lowth, Arnold, and Whitby. — Commentary on the 

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St. John.— The Three Days of February, 1848 : with Portrait 

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Tappan. — Elementary Logic. By Prof. H. P. Tappan. 1 vol. 

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Tasso. — Godfrey of Bulloigne ; or, the Recovery of Jerusalem: 

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Taylor. — Views a-Foot ; or, Europe seen with Knapsack and 

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" Besides being one of the most entertaining books of travel we ever read, it is written 
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Thackeray. — Journey from Cornhill to Cairo. By Michael 

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" It is wonderful what a description of people and things, what numerous pictures, 
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Torrey and Gray. — Flora of North America. By Professors 

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Tschudi.— Travels in Peru. By Dr. J. J. Von Tschudi. 1 

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Tupper. — Proverbial Philosophy. By Martin Farquhar Tupper. 

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Williams. — The Middle Kingdom ; a Survey of the Geography, 

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14 



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Italian Poets 1 63 

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Mallett's Northern Antiquities, by Bishop 
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William of M-lmesbury's Chronicle of the 
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L itszi's History of Painting in Italy, 3 vols. 

M -chiavelli's History of Florence, 1 vol. 

Ockley's History of the Saracens, 1 vol. 

R Hike's Lives of the Popes, 3 vols. 

Schlegel's Dramatic Literature, 1 vol. 

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15 



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Hutton. — Course of Mathematics, composed 
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